the "United Colonies" was fairly established. Finally, on the 4th of July, 1776, Congress adopted a declaration on behalf of the Colonies, declaring their independence of the English crown, and proclaiming that henceforth the Colonies were free and independent States. This declaration changed the entire nature of the struggle. "The war," says Bancroft, "was no longer a civil war; Britain was become to the United States a foreign country. Every former subject of the British king in the thirteen Colonies now owed primary allegiance to the dynasty of the people, and became citizens of the new republic; except in this, everything remained as before; every man retained his rights; the Colonies did not dissolve into a state of nature, nor did the new people undertake a social revolution. The affairs of internal police and government were carefully retained by each separate State, which could, each for itself, enter upon the career of domestic reforms. But the States which were henceforth independent of Britain, were not independent of one another; the United States of America assumed powers over war, peace, foreign alliances, and commerce."

As he supposed that New York would be the next object of attack by the British, Washington transferred his army to that place immediately after his occupation of Boston. He had not long to wait, for in June, Admiral Lord Howe entered New York bay with a formidable fleet and 30,000 troops, consisting principally of German mercenaries hired by the King of England. The troops were landed on Staten Island, and preparations made for attacking the city of New York. Lord Howe issued a proclamation to the people of America, offering a free pardon to all who would lay down their arms and accept the king's clemency; but the proclamation produced no effect whatever upon the patriots, who were convinced that they could expect but a poor regard for their rights and liberties at the hands of King George.

Washington's force was vastly inferior to that of the enemy in every respect. He was compelled to divide it, and to place a portion of it on Long Island, in order to cover the approaches to the city of New York. The force on Long Island was attacked and defeated by the British on the 27th of August, 1776, and compelled to abandon the island. The enemy followed up their successes, and finally obliged Washington to give up Manhattan Island and the lower Hudson. Disasters now fell thickly upon the Americans, and by the close of the year Washington had been driven across the Delaware,

and had with him less than 4000 half-starved and miserably equipped troops. The British had by this time taken possession of the island of Rhode Island, and had made a descent upon Baskingridge, New Jersey, and had captured General Charles Lee. By December, 1776, the cause of the Colonies seemed so desperate that the people generally began to abandon the hope of liberty and apply themselves to the task of making their peace, individually, with the royal authorities. Influenced by this state of affairs, Sir William Howe, the British Commander-in-Chief, refrained from making a vigorous effort to follow up his antagonist and crush him.

At this hour, when everything was so gloomy, Washington was calm and hopeful. He had expected reverses, and they did not dismay him. He did what lay in his power to cheer and encourage the little band of heroes who remained faithful to him, and watched the enemy with sleepless vigilance, and at length discovered an opportunity for striking a powerful blow in behalf of his country. Perceiving that the advanced wing of the English army occupied an exposed position at Trenton, New Jersey, he crossed the Delaware with his army, in open boats, in the midst of snow and ice, on the night of the 25th of December, and falling suddenly upon the enemy at daybreak the next morning, completely routed them, capturing 1000 prisoners, 1000 stand of arms, 6 brass field pieces, and 4 standards. On the night of the 26th, he recrossed the Delaware, and returned to his camp in Pennsylvania. On the 3d of January, 1777, he again defeated a strong British detachment at Princeton, New Jersey, and in a short while had cleared that State almost entirely of the enemy.

These victories, so brilliant and so audacious, completely startled the British, who had believed the war virtually over in the North, and aroused, as if by magic, the drooping spirits of the Americans. Congress, which had remained unmoved by the disasters of 1776, now inaugurated a series of more vigorous measures than had yet been determined upon. Washington was invested with almost dictatorial powers; troops were ordered to be enlisted for three years, instead of one year, which was the term of the first levies; a central government was established, and a constitution, known as the "Articles of Confederation,” was adopted by the States (Maryland did not ratify these articles until the next year); and agents were sent to foreign countries to procure the recognition of the independence of the United States.

When the campaign of 1777 opened, the prospects of the country

had so far improved that Washington found himself at the head of an army of 7000 men. Sir William Howe made repeated efforts to bring on a general engagement, but Washington skilfully avoided it, and the British General finally withdrew his army from New Jersey, and occupied Staten Island. Soon after this, he sailed with 16,000 men for the Chesapeake, and, landing at Elk River, in Maryland, advanced through Delaware towards Philadelphia, which was the seat of the Federal Government. Washington endeavored to check the progress of the enemy on the Brandywine, September 11th, but was defeated with a loss of 1000 men. The British occupied Philadelphia a few days later, and Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and then to York, Pennsylvania. On the 4th of October, Washington made a vigorous attack upon the British force at Germantown, 7 miles from Philadelphia, but was repulsed with severe loss. This event closed the campaign in the Middle States.

In the North, the American forces had been more successful. General Burgoyne, with 7000 regular troops and a considerable force of Canadians and Indians, entered the United States from Canada during the summer of 1777, and advanced as far as Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson. From this point a strong detachment was sent to Bennington, in Vermont, to destroy the stores collected there by the Americans. This force was routed with a loss of 800 men, by the militia of New Hampshire and Vermont, under General Stark. The battle occurred at Bennington, on the 16th of August, 1777. Burgoyne then advanced towards Saratoga, New York, making his way through the woods until he reached the vicinity of that place, when he was met by the American army, under General Gates, to whom the command of the Northern department had been recently assigned. An indecisive battle was fought between the two armies. on the 19th of September, and a second and more decisive engagement occurred on the 7th of October, on nearly the same ground. Burgoyne was considerably worsted, and endeavored to return to Canada, but finding his retreat cut off, surrendered his entire army to the American forces, upon favorable terms, on the 17th of October.

This victory, the most important of the war, greatly elated the Americans and their friends in Europe, while it depressed the Tories or loyalists in America to an equal degree. It advanced the bills of the Continental Congress, and had the effect of inducing the French Government, which had secretly encouraged and aided the Colonies from the first, to recognize the independence of the States, and in

*

ers.

February, 1778, a treaty of friendship, commerce, and alliance was signed at Paris, by the French King and the American CommissionGreat Britain seemed to realize now, for the first time, that she was about to lose her Colonies, and endeavored to repair her mistakes. On the 11th of March, 1778, Parliament repealed the Acts which had proved so obnoxious to the Colonies, and subsequently sent three commissioners to negotiate a reconciliation with the Americans. As these commissioners had no authority to consent to the independence of the States, Congress refused to treat with them until the king should withdraw his forces from the country, and rejected the terms offered by the British Government.

Washington's army went into winter quarters at the Valley Forge, 20 miles from Philadelphia, about the middle of December, 1777. The troops suffered terribly from exposure, hunger, and the dreadful privations to which they were subjected, but remained with their colors through it all. Their devotion was rewarded in the spring by the news of the alliance with France, which reached them in May, 1778, and was greeted with demonstrations of the liveliest joy.

The first result of the French alliance was the arrival in the Delaware of a fleet, under Count D'Estaing. D'Estaing had been ordered to blockade the British fleet in the Delaware, and arrived off the Capes in June, but before his arrival the enemy's ships had taken refuge in Raritan Bay. The British army in Philadelphia was now commanded by Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded General Howe. On the 18th of June, Clinton withdrew his force from that city, and began his retreat through New Jersey to New York. Washington pursued him promptly, and came up with him, on the 28th of June, on the plains of Monmouth, near the town of Freehold, N. J., where a severe engagement took place. Although the result was indecisive, Clinton resumed his retreat to New York, and remained there for the rest of the summer, without making any effort to resume hostilities.

In August, an attempt was made by the Americans, assisted by the French fleet, to drive the British from Rhode Island, but without saccess. D'Estaing withdrew from the coast soon after this, and returned to the West Indies, having rendered little practical aid during his presence in American waters.

The finances of the country were now in the greatest confusion, and nothing but the wisdom and unshrinking patriotism of Robert Morris saved the infant republic from utter bankruptcy and ruin. It is worthy of remark that a grateful country suffered this man to die, in

a debtor's prison. On the whole, however, the cause of the States. was much improved. Besides the alliance with France, they had the secret encouragement and assistance of Spain. They had confined the British to the territory held by that army in 1776, and had a larger and better disciplined army than they had yet possessed.

In 1779, the principal military operations were transferred to the South. Savannah had been already captured on the 29th of December, 1778, by an expedition sent from New York by Sir Henry Clinton, and by the summer of 1779, the whole State of Georgia was in the hands of the British. In September, 1779, the French fleet and a land force of Americans under General Lincoln attempted to recover Savannah, but were repulsed with a loss of 1000 men.

On the 16th of June, 1779, Spain declared war against England, and, in the summer of that year, the French King, influenced by the appeals of Lafayette, who had visited France for that purpose, agreed to send another fleet and a strong body of troops to the assistance of the Americans. The cruisers of the United States were doing considerable damage to the British commerce at sea and in British waters, and Paul Jones, on the 23d of September, fought and won one of the most desperate battles known to naval warfare, in plain sight of the English coast.

Sir Henry Clinton, in obedience to instructions received from England, now withdrew his forces from Rhode Island, and concentrated his entire command at New York. Early in 1780, he proceeded with the main body of his troops to the South, leaving General Knyphausen in command at New York, and at once laid siege to Charleston, South Carolina, which was held by General Lincoln with a force of 2500 men. The city was surrendered with its garrison, on the 17th of May, 1780, after a nominal defence. By the 1st of June, the British were in possession of the whole State of South Carolina, and Clinton was so well convinced of the completeness of its subjugation that he went back to New York on the 5th of June, leaving the command in the South to Lord Cornwallis.

Small bands of partisan troops, under Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and other no less devoted though less famous leaders, now sprang up in various parts of the State, and maintained a vigorous guerilla wirfare, from which the enemy suffered greatly. Congress soon after ent an army under General Gates into South Carolina to drive the enemy from the State. Gates' success at Saratoga had made him the idol of the hour, and there were persons who seriously desired that he