him to the latter's authority, had the magnanimity to adopt and educate the last surviving descendant of this once powerful house, a boy named Mar Sutra. On reaching the age of fifteen, the lad was brought before king Firus (A. D. 480), and received from him the appointment to the vacant office of Resh Glutha; the former incumbent, one Pahara, having just died from the sting of an insect in his nose ;-a circumstance which Mar Sutra and his posterity commemorated by placing the figure of the insect on their seal. About twenty years after, however, Mar Sutra came to an untimely end; he being executed together with his adopted father by king Kobad, in consequence of a revolt raised by one Mir, who undertook to fulfil an ancient oracle by obtaining the independence of the Jews. Mar Sutra, junior, the son of the preceding, thereupon fled to Tiberias, where he was well received, and where he gave a new impulse to Talmudical studies.

The condition of the Jewish schools in Palestine became greatly changed, by reason of the disturbed state of the country from the year 589 to 630. The head of the schools now received the appellation of Gaon (118, excellency), in imitation of the

yet received that degree of attention which it deserves. The result is, that the few treatises on Jewish history that we possess are mostly mere recitals of the numerous harassing persecutions that the nation has undergone, and enumerations of the reproaches, just and unjust, that have been made against it, in all times and in all parts of the world; while but little attention has been given to the important task of investigating the hidden causes of the occurrences which chroniclers relate: at the same time the prevalent idea respecting the literature of the nation, is that it consists of a small number of volumes containing little else than puerilities and useless subtleties. One distinguished exception, however, exists in the learned and truly classical work of Dr. Jost (Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes), quoted by usinthe former article. This writer has exhibited great diligence and accuracy in developing the origin of the events of Jewish history; while he has also bestowed a good share of attention on the national literature. His work and a well conducted periodical (Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift für jüdische Theologie), edited by Dr. Geiger with the aid of several learned Jewish theologians, have constituted our principal sources in preparing this sketch.

titles illustres and clarissimi bestowed by the court on the rabbies of Tiberias. In several cities there were seminaries of some note, and those in Sura and Pumbeditha again acquired, and for a time maintained, somewhat of their former superiority. The principal seat of the Gaon was accordingly in Sura, while the Resh Methibhta (x), or head of the school, was stationed at Pumbedìtha. Besides these dignities, there was the more secular one of Resh Glutha, who was chosen by the representatives of the congregations, the two above mentioned chiefs presiding at the election. The candidates for this important station were nominated by the king, whose choice was greatly influenced by the value of the presents they severally made him. At the close of the election, the two chiefs of the schools consecrated the new official by the imposition of hands. The conclusion of the ceremony was announced by sound of trumpet to the people, by whom rich offerings were made to the newly installed dignitary; while he in his turn entertained his electors with a feast that lasted several days. The following Sabbath, after a solemn service, the appointment of the new Resh Glutha was proclaimed; it being at the same time notified that the congregation was to be under his immediate charge, and also what taxes they would be required to pay. After returning home from the synagogue, the Resh Glutha no more went abroad on foot, but rode in a gilded carriage, with an escort of fifteen men and a foot-runner. He no longer attended religious services in public, but had them performed in his own house. He kept his secretary, and held a separate court for his own diocese, independent of those in Sura and Pumbeditha. His authority was upheld by the king, at whose court, when business called him thither, he always appeared with a princely retinue.

In like manner, but with less pomp and ceremony, the two subordinate chiefs of the school were elected by the college of rabbies out of their own body; and to each of them was assigned a diocese from which his income was to be derived. The three courts thus instituted sent out judges, furnished by them with diplomas, among the smaller congregations; and each of these judges, with two respectable inhabitants of a place, formed a temporary or circuit court, in which they settled disputes, made legal contracts, and performed other judicial functions, for which they received stated fees. The surplus of the income derived from this source was assigned to the support of studious

youth. The school of the Gaon, which formed a minor sanhedrim, always numbered seventy teachers, who held daily meetings in the months Elul and Adar; at these meetings the pupils were present, and took part in the councils and arrangements. During the rest of the year, each one attended to his own affairs at home,-those alone remaining in the schools who were intended for future rabbies. On each Sabbath of these two months, the students underwent an examination; and such as distinguished themselves above their fellows were rewarded. with a pension. These practices were kept up in imitation of the customs prevailing at the time the Talmud was composed; although the efforts of instructors were now direc ted to the interpretation of that work, rather than to the forming of new laws.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE JEWISH SCHOOLS IN MESOPOTAMIA UNDER THE DOMINION OF THE CALIPHS.

The history of the Jewish teachers and their schools in Mesopotamia, during the century following the conquest of Persia by the Mohammedans, offers nothing but a barren list of names, if we except a few rabbinical authors who flourished during that period. The rabbies were at that time in complete subjection to the Resh Glutha, who exercised a sovereign sway over the Jews, appointing and dismissing their teachers at his pleasure and without any responsibility. This functionary was usually a rich man, or became so by his office. His favorable position in the royal court sometimes proved a temptation to abuses of power, which the rabbies, mostly men retired from the affairs of the world, found it difficult to resist.

It is to this period (about A. D. 750), when among both Christians and Moslems a philosophical spirit of inquiry began to be directed to traditional observances, and when many among the Jews were led by similar views to oppose the tendency of rabbinism, that the revival of an ancient sect under a new form is to be ascribed. The immediate cause of this event is said to have been, that, on the election of a Resh Glutha or Gaon, a distinguished scholar, named Anan, was defeated by his brother, a much inferior man. Anan, however, remained at the head of a numerous party, who would acknowledge no other chief. This becoming known, he was arrested and subsequently sen tenced to death, as a stirrer up of sedition among the people. SECOND SERIES, VOL. VI. NO. I.

14

In these circumstances an Arabian fellow-prisoner advised him to request an audience of the Caliph, and make known to him the antiquity and extent of the party opposed to the authority of the Talmud. By this means Anan is stated to have succeeded in obtaining his personal freedom, with permission to remove to Palestine with his whole party, which permission was carried into effect in the year 754.

The sect to which Anan belonged was distinguished by the name of Karaites (p, scripturists). They rejected all rabbincial traditions, regarding the Mosaic law as the sole ground of religious knowledge and legal jurisdiction; and although they afterwards found themselves under the necessity of rearing a new traditional structure, they still adhered to the principle that every authorized teacher is at liberty to explain the Holy Scriptures in his own manner, without being bound by the views of his predecessors. Anan, having established himself in Palestine, ruled over it as Nasi (). He was succeeded by his son and a number of others who retained this title; though, after the lapse of several centuries, it was exchanged for that of Hacham (). The sect of Karaites never became of much note, nor did they manifest any desire for wealth and power; agriculture, the handicraft arts, and trading in provisions formed their almost exclusive occupations; the Bible and the sciences connected therewith, almost their only study. Their moral character has ever remained unimpeached. The opposition of the Karaites. to the Talmud has continued to this day;* and the justification of this conduct in general and in detail has formed their principal literary pursuit. The many books composed by them, among which are numerous treatises dogmatical, philosophical, historical, hermeneutical and grammatical, written partly in Arabic and partly in Hebrew with an admixture of Arabic, have all the same general tendency, which gives to their whole literature a polemical aspect.

The great contrast in the characters, views and modes of living of the rabbies and the Resh Glutha not unfrequently caused subjects of discord to arise between them. Thus the Resh Glutha, David ben Saccai, placed over the school of Sura one Yom Tobh, a man of obscure origin and who had been a weaver by trade. (A. D. 910.) In consequence of the dissatisfaction caused by this person's conduct during the seventeen years that

* See Bibl. Rep. Oct. 1834, pp. 565 et seq.

he held the office of Gaon, the school of Sura became almost entirely deserted. The like system of mismanagement soon after reduced that of Pumbeditha to nearly the same condition; when, to avert its utter downfall, they elected Mobasser, the son of a rabbi, to the Gaonship without the concurrence of the Resh Glutha. The latter, enraged at the slight thus put upon his authority, appointed the priest Zedek to the office; but the point being strongly contested, he was compelled to yield. On the death of Yom Tobh, two candidates were set up for the vacancy,—Saadiah ben Joseph, of Fayum in Egypt, and Zemach,— the former on account of his eminent learning, and the latter for his birth, he being descended from a former ruling family. David, the Resh Glutha, had intended to appoint a favorite of his own; but the latter declined the proffered honor, and at the same time recommended Zemach as the most fitting candidate. His choice, however, ultimately fell on Saadiah, who was appointed Gaon at the age of thirty. Notwithstanding the favor thus shown him, Saadiah, who was a man of firm and independent character, remained closely attached to the interests of the rabbies, even when it involved opposition to the will of his patron. Thus he once refused to subscribe to a decision of the latter relative to an inheritance, although his signature was requisite to its legality. When David found that he could not succeed in compelling his refractory subordinate to succumb, he pronounced a sentence of excommunication against him, and appointed another Gaon in his stead. Saadiah retorted by pronouncing against David a similar sentence, and by nominating Hassan Joshua, David's brother, Resh Glutha in opposition to him; but being unable to gain over a sufficient number to his views, he was compelled to retire from the contest. Several years after, David and Saadiah met at an entertainment given by one Cassad to all the respectable persons in the place; this happily resulted in a reconciliation between them, in consequence of which the mutual ban was revoked. Saadiah, however, returned no more to public life; but resigning his office and income to the person on whom in the meantime they had been bestowed, he devoted himself to the prosecution of his literary labours. His numerous productions, which stamp him as the first rabbi, who united the qualities of the skilful philologist and sound interpreter to extensive Talmudical knowledge and a philosophic turn of mind,—may justify us in adding a few words concerning them.