published in Greece, the largest number of them in Athens. Of these several appear in in French, Italian, and English. The leading political journal of Athens is the semimonthly Spectateur d'Orient; but generally speaking, the Greek papers make no endeavor to lead the parties in the state. Greece had, 1890, upward of 600 journals.

United States.-In America the earliest newspaper was the Boston Newsletter, founded in 1702, insignificant in size and contents, and conducted by John Campbell, the postmaster of the town. A rival to it appeared in 1719 in the Boston Gazette,"published by authority." The Boston Newsletter, however, throve in spite of opposition. With the name changed to the Massachusetts Gazette and Boston Newsletter, it was the support of the British rule against the desire for independence, and ceased to appear when the Brit ish troops evacuated Boston. The New England Courant, established in 1721, was at first printed by James Franklin, and afterwards edited by his brother the famous statesman. It lasted but six years, but a subsequent newspaper, entitled the Pennsylvania Gazette, was started by Benjamin Franklin in 1729, and continued weekly till 1745, when it merged in the North American. Ede's Boston Gazette, begun in 1755, was for a long time the chief organ of the popular party; in it appeared John Adams's "Letters of Novanglus.' The Massachusetts Spy was another paper of note on the revolutionary side. It was afterwards removed from Boston to Worcester, and still appears as the Worcester Spy. At the revolution the New England colonies possessed 14 newspapers; Pennsylvania, 9; New York, 4; and the middle and southern colonies, 10. All save the semiweekly Advertiser of Philadelphia were published weekly. The development of the newspaper trade has kept pace with the advancing prosperity of the country. In 1800 the number of newspapers had increased to 200, of which several were daily papers. In 1810 there were 359, including 27 daily sheets. In 1828 852 papers appeared; in 1850 no less than 2,526; while in 1870 there were 5,871 newspapers, with a circulation of 20,842,475, and a yearly issue of 1,508,250. In 1880 the number of weekly papers had reached 8,633, besides 133 semi-weekly and 971 daily papers. Some of the New York weeklies have an enormous circulation, the Ledger having occasionally sent out upwards of 400,000 copies. The Germans publish 641 papers in their own tongue; the Scandinavians, 49; Spaniards, 26; Italians, 4; Welsh, 5; Bohemians, 13; Poles, 2; Portuguese, 2; while there is a Chinese newspaper published at San Francisco, and a Cherokee one at Tahlequah in the Indian territory. About 17,760 periodicals, with an annual circulation of 3,481,610 were issued in the U. S. and Canada, in 1890. Among the leading newspapers of New York (daily) are the New York Tribune, the World, the Herald, the Times, the Sun, the Evening Post, the Commercial Advertiser, and the Mail and Express. The expenditures of American newspapers are on a much more liberal scale than those of foreign periodicals. Some interesting statistics compiled in 1890 by Mr. Eugene M. Camp illustrate very forcibly the liberality and enterprise of American publishers. He gives as an approximate estimate of the annual sum expended in the United States for news-collecting, the following:

The average monthly expenses of fourteen leading American journals for special dispatches, are given in the following table:

The average annual outlay for white paper by eighteen leading dailies is as follows:

Among the various syndicates and associations for news-gathering, the expenditures of two are given by Mr. Camp. The Associated Press, which aims to provide news of all important events, does so at an annual outlay of some $1,250,000. The United Press, a stock company, which makes a specialty of local news, spends $450,000 per annum. During the past few years syndicates have been formed for the purpose of providing the Sunday newspapers with novels and stories by popular authors. The syndicate purchases from the writer the MS. of a story, and sells the right of simultaneous publication to one newspaper in each of the great cities, thus making a handsome profit. In 189091 there appeared in American newspapers in this way, contributions from William Black, H. Rider Haggard, Wilkie Collins, “the Duchess," Robert Louis Stevenson, Rudyard Kipling, and others of equal popularity.

Rowell reported for 1890 the number of newspapers published in the United States and Canada as 17,760. Of these, 812 were Canadian publications. The following was the frequency of issue: Weekly, 13,164; monthly, 2191; daily, 1626; semi-monthly, 280; semi-weekly, 217; quarterly, 126; bi-weekly, 82; bi-monthly, 38; tri-weekly, 36-total, 17,760.

The following table exhibits the number of papers printed in the several States and Canada in 1890:

The principal religious papers published in New York are the Observer and Evangelist, organs of the Presbyterians; Independent and Outlook, bound to no denomination; the Churchman is Episcopal; the Christian Advocate, Methodist; and the Examiner, Baptist. The Unitarians are represented by the Liberal Christian; the Catholics by the Tablet; and the Swedenborgians and Jews have also their papers.

All the other numerous journals of the American states are, compared with those of New York, accounted provincial, but many are, nevertheless, vigorously conducted. According to a report presented in 1886 to the imperial German diet, at least 34,000 newspapers are published throughout the world; the issues amounting, annually, to 592,000,000. Of these papers, 19,000 are published in Europe, 12,000 in North America, 775 in Asia, and 609 in South America; 16,500 are in the English language, 7,800 in German, 3,850 in French, and about 1000 in Spanish. See AMERICAN JOURNALISM; JOURNALISM, ILLUSTRATED; JOURNALISM, COLLEGE.

NEWSTEAD ABBEY, the home of the Byrons, about 8 m. n.w. of Nottingham, England. It was founded by Henry II. in 1170, as a priory of black canons. When Henry VIII. dissolved the monasteries it was granted to sir John Byron, who made over a part of it into a dwelling, and it has since been subjected to so many alterations and additions that, though originally a fine specimen of the early Anglo-Gothic, it is now a composite of many styles. The fifth lord Byron, the poet's great-uncle, tore down much of the house, felled large tracts of timber, and did what he could to ruin the estate, from hatred for his son the heir, who, after all, did not survive his father. Lord Byron sold the estate in 1817 to Col. Wildman for £180,000. Wildman spent over £200,000 in improving it, and preserved all the memorials of the poet, his former schoolfellow, which he found. Newstead abbey was in 1881 the property of William Frederick Webb.

NEWT, or EFT, Triton, a genus of batrachians of the family salamandrida, more aquatic in their habits than the salamander, to which, in form and characters, they are very similar, having an elongated body and tail, and four small weak limbs. The tail is vertically compressed, and a crest is often developed on the back and tail, but the crest is characteristic of the males in the breeding season, and the tail becomes rounded when the animals leave the water, as they often do, particularly in the latter part of summer, or in autumn; which, along with other variations apparently dependent on circumstances, have caused no little multiplication of specific names. The most abundant British species is the COMMON NEWT, or SMOOTH NEWT (T. punctatus, Lissotriton punctatus, or Lophinus punctatus), which is from 3 to 4 in. long, brownish gray above, yellowish beneath, spotted with black, with a soft, smooth skin, and two bands of pores on the head; a well-known inhabitant of stagnant pools and ditches, often found also under stones, and in other damp situations. The WARTY NEWT (T. palustris, or cristatus), also pretty common, is 5 or 6 in. in length, blackish brown above with round spots of a darker tint,

bright orange or orange-yellow with black spots on the under parts, the sides dotted with white, and the tail often exhibiting a white band, the skin rough or warty, and with many pores. The dorsal and caudal crests of the warty newt are separate; those of the common newt are united. Many other species occur in other parts of the world. They all feed on animal food, of which tadpoles and aquatic insects form the chief portions. They deposit their eggs on the leaves of aquatic plants, each egg separately, twisting or folding the leaf with their feet so as to conceal the egg, which is surrounded by a viscous substance, so that the leaf is retained in this form. The transformation of newts and other batrachians is noticed in the article BATRACHIA. They very frequently change their skin. They possess, in an extraordinary degree, the power of reproducing lost members-a limb, a tail, even an eye-in every respect perfect.

NEW TESTAMENT. See BIBLE.

NEW THEOLOGY, THE, or NEW DIVINITY, so-called, according to those who champion it, is not strictly new, nor is it iconoclastic, but is rather an attempt to re-shape and re-express truth in conformity to the modern conditions of thought," and is better styled REAL THEOLOGY. "It does not yet signify a definite, compact body of doctrine, but is applied loosely and largely to a great variety of opinions advocated by writers in many countries, who have a general unity of spirit." Among its positive features are “a somewhat larger and broader use of the reason than has been accorded to theology; an ignoring of the long apparent antagonism between the kingdoms of faith and of natural law; a rejection of verbal inspiration, but a retaining of views based on verbal inspiration; a truer view of the solidarity of the human race as opposed to excessive individuality; a wider study of man; and a restatement of belief in eschatology." The last position includes an acceptance of the doctrine of "future probation," which, briefly stated, is that no one can be saved without Christ, hence, every one of the human race will have an opportunity hereafter, if not in this life, of accepting or rejecting him. This doctrine must not be confounded with those of purgatory, of universal salvation, or of "progressive sanctification," i.e., that the souls of the righteous are not made perfect in holiness at death, but that in a middle state this perfection will be reached. The advocacy of the New Theology by certain professors in Andover Theological Seminary, and the establishment by them of the Andover Review, expressly to advance its principles, gave rise to the inaccurate appellation, ANDOVER THEOLOGY. See the volume, Progressive Orthodoxy; Newman Smyth, Old Faiths in New Lights, and The Orthodox Theology of to day; Munger, The Freedom of Faith; Bascom, The New Theology, and the criticisms of Frederic Palmer in the Andover Review, 1890. See PROBATION AFTER DEATH.

The

NEWTON, a co. in n.w. Arkansas, drained by the Buffalo fork of White river, and other branches; 838 sq.m.; pop. '90, 9950, chiefly of American birth, with colored. surface is undulating, hilly in some portions, and heavily wooded. The soil is mostly fertile, and the principal productions are Indian corn, wheat, and tobacco. Large quantities of butter, honey, and sorghum molasses are made. There are deposits of lead in some portions. Co. seat, Jasper.

NEWTON, a co. in n. central Georgia, bounded on the s. w. by the South river, drained by the Yellow and Ulcofauhatchee rivers, which unite with the South, in the s. portion of the co., to form the Ocmulgee; situated on the Georgia and the Middle Georgia and Atlantic railroads; 260 sq. m.; pop. '90, 14,310. The surface is diversified, and large portions of it heavily wooded with hickory and oak. The soil is fertile, especially near the rivers, and produces good crops of corn, wheat, oats, cotton, and sweet potatoes. Considerable quantities of butter, molasses, honey, and wool are raised. There are a number of tanneries, saw mills, and manufactories of cotton yarn. Co. seat, Covington.

NEWTON, a co. in n.w. Indiana, adjoining Illinois; bounded on the n. by the Kankakee river, traversed in the s. by Iroquois river, and on the line of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railroad. The surface is level, mostly prairie, with swamps in some portions. Beaver lake is situated in the north. The soil is fertile, and produces good crops of Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay. Other staples are cattle and wool. Pop. '90, 8803. Area, 400 sq. m. Co. seat, Kentland.

NEWTON, a co. in e. central Mississippi, drained by the Young Warrior, and the branches of the Chickasawha river; on the Queen and Crescent route railroad; 576 sq. m.; pop. '90, 16,625, chiefly of foreign birth, includ. colored. The surface is undulating, and heavily wooded. The soil is fertile, and produces good crops of corn, wheat, oats, sweet potatoes, and cotton. Other staples are wool, pork, butter, and molasses. Large numbers of cattle are raised. Co. seat, Decatur.

NEWTON, a co. in s.w. Missouri, bordering on the Indian territory and Kansas, drained by the Grand and Elk rivers, and Waterfall creek, and crossed by the St. Louis and San Francisco, and the Kansas City, Pittsburg and Gulf railroads; 648 sq. m.; pop. '90, 22,108. The surface is heavily wooded with hickory, red, and white oak, black walnut, and ash. The soil is mostly fertile, and the principal productions are Indian corn, wheat, oats, sweet potatoes, and tobacco. Other staples are cattle, butter, wool, and sorghum molasses. Carboniferous limestone and lead are found. There are flouring and saw mills, and pig-lead is manufactured. Co. seat, Neosho.

NEWTON, a co. in s.e. Texas, bounded on the e. by the Sabine river, which sepa rates it from Louisiana, and drained by the branches of the Sabine; 970 sq.m.; pop. '90, 4650, inclu. colored. The surface is broken by hills in the n., is more undulating in the s., and heavily wooded with good timber trees. The soil in the hilly portion is sandy and unproductive, but fertile in the lower lands around the rivers. The principal productions are corn, sweet potatoes, and cotton. There are large numbers of cattle; considerable molasses is made. Co. seat, Newton.

NEWTON, a city in Middlesex co., Mass.; on the Charles river and the Boston and Albany railroad; about 7 m. w. of Boston. It contains 13 villages, all connected with each other and with Waltham, Watertown, and Boston by electric street railroad, and its eastern and southern boundaries join Boston. The city has the Newton theological institution (q. v.), a female seminary, the Fish school for boys, West Newton classical school, high school, hospital, nervine hospital, public library, with several distributing stations, over 35 churches, gas and electric lights, national and savings banks, and a fine boulevard from Boston to Weston bridge. Newton was founded in 1630; incorporated as a town in 1688; and chartered as a city in 1873; charter amended in 1882. It is principally a residential city. Pop. '90, 24,379.

99 66

NEWTON, CHARLES THOMAS, b. England, 1816; educated at Oxford. In 1840_he became assistant keeper of the department of antiquities in the British museum, but resigned in 1852, and obtained the appointment of vice-consul at Mytilene, where he went for the purpose of securing some of the antique sculptures known to exist in Asia Minor, and in the Egean islands. He passed a number of years in the exploration of the archipelago, discovering at Halicarnassus (the modern Budrum) the site of Artemisia's mausoleum. He carried on excavations at Branchide and Cnidus, 1856-59. He unearthed many valuable sculptures, which, with a fine collection of ancient vases, coins, and inscriptions, he presented to the British museum. In 1860 he was appointed consul at Rome, in 1861 keeper of Greek and Roman antiquities in the British museum, and in 1880 prof. of archæology at University coll., London. His wife, a well-known artist, d. in 1866. NEWTON, GILBERT STUART, 1794-1835; b. Nova Scotia; went to England in 1817, and, after a tour in Italy, became a student at the royal academy, where he made the acquaintance of Washington Irving and Charles R. Leslie. His first works to attract attention were “The Forsaken” and “The Lover's Quarrel," engraved in the Literary Souvenir for 1826; both were in the manner of Watteau. In 1830 he painted "Shylock and Jessica;" Yorick and the Grisette," from the Sentimental Journey; and "Abbot Boniface" from the Monastery. In 1831 he exhibited "Portia and Bassanio," and "Lear attended by Cordelia." In 1832 he returned to this country, where he married. On his return to England the next year, he was elected to the Royal Academy, and exhibited a small picture of "Abelard." He also painted "The Vicar of Wakefield," 'Macheath," and a few portraits. He was insane for the last two years of his life. NEWTON, Sir ISAAC, the most remarkable mathematician and natural philosopher of his own or perhaps of any other age, was b. at Woolsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, in the year 1642. That year, remarkable in English history for the breaking out of the civil war between Charles I. and the parliament, is doubly remarkable in the history of science by the birth of Newton and the death of Galileo. The circumstances with which the pursuit of truth, in scientific matters, was at this time surrounded in the respective countries of these great philosophers, were not more different than the characters of the philosophers themselves. Galileo died a prisoner, under the surveillance of the inquisition, "for thinking, in astronomy,' as Milton says, "otherwise than the Franciscan and Dominican licensers thought." In England, it had become the practice, and soon became the fashion, through the influence of Bacon and Descartes, to discard altogether the dic. tates of authority in matters of science. The dispositions of the two philosophers were happily suited to the situations in which they thus found themselves. Galileo's was a mind whose strength and determination grew by the opposition it encountered. The disposition of Newton on the other hand, diffident of the value and interest of his own labors, and shrinking from the encounter of even scientific controversy, might have allowed his most remarkable discoveries to remain in obscurity had it not been for the constant and urgent solicitation of his friends that they should be published to the world. Newton received his early education at the grammar school of Grantham, in the neighborhood of his home, at Woolsthorpe. On June 5, 1661, he left home for Cambridge, where he was admitted as subsizar at Trinity college. On July 8 following, he matriculated as sizar of the same college. He immediately applied himself to the mathematical studies of the place, and within a very few years must have not only made himself master of most of the works of any value on such subjects then existing, but had also begun to make some progress in the methods for extending the science. In the year 1665 he committed to writing his first discovery on fluxions; and it is said that in the same year, the fall of an apple, as he sat in his garden at Woolsthorpe, suggested the most magnificent of his subsequent discoveries-the law of universal, gravitation. On his first attempt, however, by means of the law so suggested to his mind, to explain the Junar and planetary motions, he employed an estimate then in use of the radius of the earth, which was so erroneous as to produce a discrepancy between the real force of

Newton.

gravity and that required by theory to explain the motions, corresponding to the respec tive figures 16.1 and 13.9. He accordingly abandoned the hypothesis for other studies. These other pursuits to which he thus betook himself, consisted chiefly of investigations into the nature of light, and the construction of telescopes. By a variety of ingenious and interesting experiments upon sunlight refracted through a prism in a darkened apartment, he was led to the conclusion that rays of light which differ in color, differ also in refrangibility. This discovery enabled him to explain an imperfection of the telescope, which had not till then been accounted for. The indistinctness of the image formed by the object-glass was not necessarily due to any imperfection of its form, but to the fact of the different colored rays of light being brought to a focus at different distances. He concluded rightly that it was impossible for an object-glass consisting of a single lens to produce a distinct image. He went further, and too hastily concluding, from a single experiment, that the dispersive power of different substances was proportional to their refractive power, he pronounced it impossible to produce a perfect image by a combination of lenses. This conclusion-since proved erroneous by the discovery of the achromatic telescope by Mr. Chester More Hall, of More Hall, in Essex, about 1729, and afterwards, independently, by Mr. Dollond in 1751-turned Newton's attention to the construction of reflecting telescopes; and the form devised by him is the one which, at later periods, reached such perfection in the hands of sir William Herschel and lord Rosse.

It was on Jan. 11, 1671, that Newton was elected a member of the royal society, having become known to that body from his reflecting telescopes. At what period he resumed his calculations about gravitation, employing the more correct measure of the earth obtained by Picard in 1670, does not clearly appear; but it was in the year 1684 that it became known to Halley that he was in possession of the whole theory and its demonstration. It was on the urgent solicitation of Halley that he was induced to com mit to a systematic treatise these principles and their demonstrations. The principal results of his discoveries were set down in a treatise called De Motu Corporum, and were afterwards more completely unfolded in the great work entitled Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which was finally published about midsummer, 1687.

Shortly before the Principia was given to the public, Newton had been called to take an active part in defending the rights of the university against the illegal encroachments of James II. The conspicuous part which he had taken on that occasion procured him a seat in the convention parliament, in which he sat from Jan., 1689, to its dissolution In 1690. In 1696 he was appointed warden of the mint, and was afterwards promoted to the office of master of the mint in 1699, an office which he held till the end of his life. He again took a seat in parliament, in the year 1701, as the representative of his university. Thus engaged in the public service, he had little time left for mere scientific studies-pursuits which he always held of secondary importance to the public duties in which he was engaged. In the interval of public duty, however, Newton showed that he still retained the scientific power by which his great discoveries had been made. This was shown in his solution of two celebrated problems proposed in June, 1696, by John Bernouilli, as a challenge to the mathematicians of Europe. A similar mathematical feat is recorded of him so late as 1716 in solving a problem proposed by Leibnitz, for the purpose, as he expressed it, of feeling the pulse of the English analysts. When in parliament, Newton recommended the public encouragement of the invention of a method for determining the longitude-the first reward in consequence being gained by John Harrison for his chronometer. He was president of the royal society from 1703 till his death, a period of twenty-five years, being each year re-elected. In this position, and enjoying the confidence of Prince George of Denmark, he had much in his power towards the advancement of science; and one of his most important works during this time was the superintendence of the publication of Flamsteed's Greenwich Observations— a task, however, not accomplished without much controversy and some bitterness between himself and that astronomer. The controversy between Newton and Leibnitz, as to priority of discovery of the differential calculus, or the method of fluxions, was raised rather through the partisanship of jealous friends than through the anxiety of the philosophers themselves, who were, however, induced to enter into and carry on the dispute with some degree of bitterness and mutual recrimination. The verdict of the impartial historian of science must be that the methods were invented quite independently, and that, although Newton was the first inventor, a greater debt is owing by later analysts to Leibnitz, on account of the superior facility and completeness of his method. The details of these controversies, with all other information of the life of this philosopher, will be found admirably collected in the life by sir D. Brewster, who writes with not only an intimate acquaintance with Newton's works, but in the possession of all the materials collected in the hands of his family. Newton died on Mar. 20, 1727, and his remains received a resting-place in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory in 1731. A magnificent full-length statue of the philosopher, executed by Roubilliac, was erected in 1755 in the antechapel of Trinity college, Cam. bridge. This work was assisted by a cast of the face taken after death, which is preserved in the university library at Cambridge. In 1699 Newton had been elected a

foreign associate of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1703 he received the honor of knighthood from Queen Anne. Among the best editions of Newton's principal works