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known as city magistrates, have 10-year terms, and number 7 in Manhattan, 6 in Brooklyn, and 2 each in Bronx, Queens, and Richmond. Each borough has a president, elected for four years, who calls all meetings of local boards and certifies all official acts of the local boards of the districts of local improvements. The presidents of the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx, and Brooklyn receive $5,000 per annum; those of Queens and Richmond, $3,000. For the purposes of local improvement, the city is divided into 22 districts, each with a board comprising the president of the borough and each member of the municipal assembly who is a resident of such local improvement district. One of the most important features of the charter relates to the granting of franchises to persons or corporations. All grants must be by specific ordinance, are limited in duration to 25 years, and at the expiration of that period may revert to the city or be renewed by it for 25 years more.

POPULATION.-At the beginning of the century the population of the city was 60,489; in '30, 191,112; in '50, 515,547; '60, 805,658; '70, 942,292; '80, 1,206,299; '90, 1,515,301. In 1892 the State census gave 1,801,739.

Among the many works on New York are the histories by Mrs. Martha J. Lamb (2 vols., 1877-81), and by Todd (1888); Scoville's Old Merchants of New York City; Newberry's Geological History of New York Island and Harbor (1878); Camman and Camp's Charities of New York (1868); Roosevelt's New York (1891), and Wilson's Memorial History of New York (3 vols., 1893).

NEW YORK, COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF, is the only free college supported by city taxpayers in the United States. It began its existence as the free academy in 1848, having first received the sanction of a popular vote, and its present title was bestowed upon it in 1866. Standing at the head of the public school system, its trustees are the members of the board of education, together with the president of the college. It has had but two presidents, Horace Webster, LL.D., and from 1869, Alexander S. Webb, LL.D. Tuition, books, and stationery are free, all expenses being paid on presentation of vouchers to the comptroller of the city, who disbursed in 1895-6, for this instruction $149,854.46. Candidates for admission to the college must be 14 years of age, and must pass an examination on the studies taught in the grammar schools. Students have the option of a five years' classical, scientific, or mechanical course, the first year being considered introductory. Since its foundation in 1866 the college has had over 19,000 students. The year 1896-97 began with 1897 students, of whom 560 were in the introductory, and 351 in the collegiate classes, and the graduating class of 1896 numbered 82. The buildings and grounds on the s.e. corner of Lexington av. and East 23d st. are valued at $600,000; the library of 30,271 volumes at $66,000; the apparatus, cabinets, casts, models, etc., at more than $40,000; and the institution has library and medal funds aggregating $43,550. In 1896 there were 52 instructors and 1693 students.

NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY, an institution in New York city created in 1895 by the consolidation of the Astor and Lenox libraries and the merging of a part of the estate of the late Samuel J. Tilden, under the corporate name of the New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations. In 1896, John Shaw Billings, M. D., formerly of the medical department of the U. S. army, and professor of hygiene in the University of Pennsylvania, was appointed by the joint board of trustees superintendentin-chief of the consolidated libraries. Pending the erection of a new library building in Bryant park, the work of the Astor and Lenox libraries continued as usual, with administrative headquarters in the former on Lafayette place. See ASTOR LIBRARY; LENOX, JAMES; TILDEN, SAMUEL JONES.

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY was chartered in 1831, and began to receive students the next year. It now consists of six schools. The date of the opening of each school and the number of each faculty and students in 1896-7 were as follows: the Undergraduate college opened in 1832, faculty 31, students 177; Law school in 1835, faculty 23, students 594; Medical college in 1841, faculty 62, students 344; Engineering school in 1862, faculty 29, students 41; Graduate school in 1886, faculty 24, students 83; School of Pedagogy in 1890, faculty 8, students 122. Total, deducting for names counted twice, instructors 142, students 1361. The number of graduates approaches 10,000. The University schools of law and pedagogy are at Washington square east. The University medical school is on East 26th street near First avenue. The University college, engineering school and graduate school are at University Heights. The University owns real estate at these three points worth over $2,000,000, including cost of library at University Heights, in course of erection. The site and buildings at University Heights are hardly surpassed in beauty in America. The endowments of the University have been largely increased of late years. The first chancellor of the institution was the Rev. Dr. James H. Matthews, and the Rev. Dr. H. Crosby held the office several years. The present chancellor is H. M. MacCracken, D.D., LL.D.

NEW ZEALAND, a British colony in the south Pacific Ocean, consists of three islands, two large and one much smaller, and of a number of islets scattered round the coasts. These islands, which are named respectively north, south (sometimes also middle), and Stewart's island, are situated 6500 m. w. from the coast of South America, and about 1200 m. s.e. of Australia. The group is irregular in form, but may be said to extend from the s. in a n.n.e. direction, and, like the peninsula of Italy, resembles a boot in shape. North island is 500 m. long, and 200 m. in greatest breadth from e. to w.; south island is 550 m. long, and 210 m. in greatest breadth; Stewart's island is triangular in

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shape, and has an area of about 665 square miles. Area of the three islands, about 100,000 square miles. The north is separated from the south island by Cook's strait, which is 18 m. wide at its eastern and 90 m. wide at its western end; the south is separated from Stewart's island by Foveaux strait, which averages about 20 m. in width. The group extends in lat. from 34° 23′ to 47° 16′ s., and in long. from 166° 30′ to 178° 30′ e., being thus almost the antipodes of the British isles.

Coast Line.-Of the entire coast line of over 3000 m., nearly 2200 m. is formed by the shores of north island, which are deeply indented, and contain many excellent harbors. Commencing from north cape, and going s.e. round the island, the chief harbors are Monganui, Wangaroa, the bay of islands, Auckland, Mercury, and Tauranga bays, and the ports of Wellington, Manukau, and Hokianga. On the n. and s. coasts of south island, which are much broken, the harbors are numerous and excellent; on the eastern coast, the principal harbors are Akaroa, Victoria, and Dunedin. On the coast of Stewart's Island, there are also good ports.

Surface. The New Zealand islands are of volcanic origin, and a great portion of the entire area is occupied by mountains, among which are many extinct and a few active volcanoes. In north island, Mount Ruaperhui, the highest summit of the central range, is 9,195 ft. in height, and is capped with perpetual snow, In the same range is Tongariro, an active volcano, 6,500 ft. high. A continuous range of mountains runs along the western coast of south island, and assumes the form of table-lands and isolated peaks toward the east. This range rises in Mount Cook to about 12,350 feet. In Stew art's Island, the greatest elevation is about 3,000 feet. In north island, the mountains are mostly clothed with evergreen forests of luxuriant growth, interspersed with fernclad ranges, and occasionally with treeless grassy plains; extensive and rich valleys and sheltered dales abound; and in the east of south island there are many expansive plains of rich meadow-land, admirably adapted either for agriculture or cattle-breeding. Water and water-power are found in great abundance in the colony, and the numerous rivers are subject to sudden floods from the melting of the mountain snows. As a rule, however, the streams are short, and are not navigable for more than 50 m. above their mouths. The chief is Waikato river, in north island, which, issuing from the Taupo lake (30 m. long by 20 broad), flows in a northern direction for 200 m., and reaches the sea on the w. coast. In south island, the rivers Clutha, Mataura, and Waiau, all flow. ing s., are among the chief. Around lakes Rotomahana and Rotorua are a number of grand and beautiful geysers, which throw up water heated to 2° above the boiling. point. The geology of New Zealand is remarkable in a high degree. The mountains. which are of every variety of outline, are chiefly composed of the lower slate-rocks, intersected with basalt, and mixed with primary sandstone and limestone. Beds of coal and lignite exist, and the former have been to some extent worked.

The

Soil, Climate, and Productions.—Of the whole surface-extent of New Zealand (nearly 70,000,000 acres, little short of the combined area of England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland), two-sevenths is estimated to consist of dense forest tracts, one-half of excellent soil, and the remainder of waste lands, scoriæ-hills, and rugged mountain regions. Nearly 40,000,000 acres are supposed to be more or less suitable for agriculture and cattle-breeding. The soil, although often clayey, has in the volcanic districts more than a medium fertility; but the luxuriant and semi-tropical vegetation is perhaps as much due to excellence of climate as to richness of soil. Owing to the prevalence of light and easily-worked soils, all agricultural processes are performed with unusual ease. climate of New Zealand is one of the finest in the world. The country contains few physical sources of disease: the average temperature is remarkably even at all seasons of the year, and the atmosphere is continually agitated and freshened by winds that blow over an immense expanse of ocean. In a word, the climate much resembles that of England, with half the cold of the English winter; while the summer is longer and somewhat warmer, the atmosphere is more breezy and pure, and there are many more fine days throughout the year. In north island, the mean annual temperature is 58°; in south island, 52°. The mean temperature of the hottest month at Auckland is 68°: and at Otago, 58°; of the coldest month, 51° and 40°. The air is very humid, and the fall of rain is greater than in England, but there are more dry days. All the native trees and plants are evergreens. Forests, shrubberies, and plains are clothed in green throughout the year, the results of which are, that cattle, as a rule, browse on the herb. age and shrubs of the open country all the year round, thus saving great expense to the cattle-breeder; and that the operations of reclaiming and cultivating land can be carried on at all seasons. The seasons in New Zealand are the reverse of ours; January is their hottest month, and June the coldest. All the grains, grasses, fruits, and vegetables grown in England are cultivated in this country with perfect success, being excellent in quality and heavy in yield; while, besides these, the vine is cultivated in the open air, and maize, the taro, and the sweet-potato are cultivated to some extent in the sunny valleys of north island. The entire acreage under crop in New Zealand in 1851 was 29,140; in 1858, it was 141,007; in 1881, 4,768,192; and in 1896 was 10,698,809. Of the crops, the principal were wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and sown grass, which, under ordinary circumstances, are grown to great advantage in New Zealand. Besides a few harmless lizards, a small species of rat is the only indigenous four-footed animal found in either of the great islands. Hawks are numerous. The country is destitute of snakes,