mentioned as a separate language, but it is only Persian as spoken at Bokhara.

Kurdish.

The language of the Kurds, the old Karduchi, is an Iranian dialect, but it has assumed a kind of national independence, and is spoken on both sides of the Upper Tigris over a large area. We possess a dictionary and grammar of the language by Justi, 1880.

Baluchi.

The language of Baluchistan is likewise Iranic. It is divided into two dialects, the Northern and Southern, which are separated by people speaking Brahui, a Dravidian language. Those who speak these two dialects are said to be unable to understand each other.1

Language of the Afghans and Dards.

The language of the Afghans, the Pushtu, and the Paktyes of Herodotus, which was formerly classed as an Iranian dialect, has been proved by Trumpp to be more closely related with the vernaculars of India than of Persia.2 North of Afghanistan the dialects of Dardistan have been examined by Dr. Leitner, and seem to occupy, so far as we may judge at present, the same intermediate position as Pushtu.

Armenian.

Armenian was formerly classed as an Iranian 1See W. Geiger, Dialectspaltung im Balûchî, in Sitzungsberichte der philos.- philol. und histor. Classe der K. Bayer.-Akad. der Wiss., 1889, Heft i.

2 Trumpp, in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, vols. xxi and xxii; also Grammar of Pushtu, 1873.

language. This was the opinion of Bopp, Windischmann, F. Müller, and other scholars; nor can it be doubted that on many points it comes very near to the Iranian type of grammar. Pott was the first to express some doubts on the subject, and de Lagarde, in 1866, distinguished in Armenian between an original stratum, an old Iranian alluvium, and a new Iranian stratum. It was reserved, however, for Professor Hübschmann to claim for Armenian an independent position in the Aryan family, distinct in its phonetic structure from Persian, and with peculiarities of grammar which cannot be traced back to any other Aryan language, though on one important point it agrees with Letto-Slavic.1

Gipsies.

There remains one more Aryan language which belongs equally to Asia and Europe, the language of the Gipsies. Its Indian origin is now fully proved. The Gipsies first appeared in Europe in the twelfth century, and from the words which they carried along with them in their dictionary Miklosich has proved that they must have taken their journey through Persia, Armenia, Greece, Roumania, Hungary, and Bohemia.

South-Eastern, North-Western Branches.

It is possible to divide the whole Aryan family into two divisions: the South-Eastern, including the Indic and Iranic classes, and the North-Western, comprising

1 Über die Stellung des Armenischen im Kreise der Indo-germanischen Sprachen, Kuhn's Zeitschrift, xxiii. 5.

all the rest. Sanskrit and Zend share certain words and grammatical forms in common which do not exist in any of the other Aryan languages; and there can therefore be no doubt that the ancestors of the poets of the Veda and of the worshippers of Ahurô mazdâo lived together for some time after they had left the original home of the whole Aryan race. The genealogical classification of languages has in fact an historical meaning. There was a time when out of many possible names for father, mother, daughter, son, dog, cow, heaven, and earth, those which we find in all the Aryan languages were framed, and obtained a mastery in the struggle for life which is carried on among synonymous words as much as among plants and animals. A comparative table of the auxiliary verb AS, to be, in the different Aryan languages teaches the same lesson. The selection of the root AS out of many roots, equally applicable to the idea of being, and the joining of this root with one set of personal terminations, most of them originally personal pronouns, were individual acts, or, if you like, historical events. They took place once, at a certain date and in a certain place; and as we find the same forms preserved by all the members of the Aryan family, it follows that there was once a small clan of Aryas, settled probably somewhere on the highest elevation of Central Asia, speaking a language, not yet Sanskrit or Greek or German, but containing the dialectic germs of all; a clan that had advanced to a state of agricultural civilisation; that had recognised the bonds of blood, and sanctioned the laws of marriage; and that invoked the Giver

of light and life in heaven by the same name which may still be heard in the temples of Benares, in the basilicas of Rome, and in our own churches and cathedrals.

After this clan broke up, the ancestors of the Indians and Zoroastrians must have remained together for some time in their migrations or new settlements. Whether, besides this division into a southern and northern branch, it is possible by the same test (the community of particular words and forms) to discover the successive periods when the Germans separated from the Slaves, the Celts from the Italians, or the Italians from the Greeks, seems more than doubtful. The attempts made by different scholars have led to different and by no means satisfactory results; and it seems best, for the present, to trace each of the northern classes back to its own dialect, and to account for the more special coincidences between such languages as, for instance, the Slavonic and Teutonic, by admitting that the ancestors of these races preserved from the beginning certain dialectical peculiarities which existed before, as well as after, the separation of the Aryan family. 2

1

1 See Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, s. 81; Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iv. pp. 224-227.

2 Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas, 1888.

The Origin of the name Ârya.

Arya is a Sanskrit word, and in the later Sanskrit it means noble, of a good family. Teachers are frequently addressed as Arya. It was, however, originally a national name, and we see traces of it as late as the law-book of the Mânavas, where India is still called Arya-âvarta, the abode of the Aryas.1 In the old Sanskrit, in the hymns of the Veda, ârya occurs frequently as a national name and as a name of honour, comprising the worshippers of the gods of the Brahmans, as opposed to their enemies, who are called in the Veda Dasyus. Thus one of the gods, Indra, who, in some respects, answers to the Greek Zeus, is invoked in the following words (Rig-veda i. 51, 8): 'Know thou the Aryas, O Indra, and they who are Dasyus; punish the lawless, and deliver them unto thy servant! Be thou the mighty helper of the worshippers, and I will praise all these thy deeds at the festivals.'

In the later dogmatic literature of the Vedic age, the name of Arya is distinctly appropriated to the first three castesthe Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas-as opposed to the fourth, or the Sûdras. In the Satapatha-Brâhmana it is laid down distinctly: 'Aryas are only the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas, for they are admitted to the sacrifices. They shall not speak with everybody, but only with the Brahmana, the Kshatriya, and the Vaisya. If they should fall into a conversation with a Sûdra, let them say to another man, "Tell this Sûdra so." This is the law.'

In the Atharva-veda (iv. 20, 4; xix. 62, 1) expressions occur such as, 'seeing all things, whether Sûdra or Arya,' where Sûdra and Arya are meant to express the whole of mankind.

This word ârya with a long â is derived from arya with a short a, and this name arya is applied in the later Sanskrit 1Ârya.bhumi and Arya-desa are used in the same sense,