Leaving the hall of Venus we enter the hall of Apollo; here the tutelary deities of Poetry and Art receive Cosmo guided by Virtue and Glory. In this hall is a Virgin and Child by Murillo; of course the Virgin mother is of the Spanish type of beauty, Murillo being a Spaniard. That is the characteristic of the old masters in delineating the Virgin and scenes in the life of our Saviour; the Italians painted Italian faces and figures, the Spaniards painted Spanish types, the Dutch that of their own countrymen; and sometimes the costumes are as incongruous as the faces, for they all represented Jews.

The chief attraction in the hall of Apollo is the portrait of Leo X. by Raphael. Leo X. was one of the most remarkable men of the Medici family; his face is a study. Its self poise, keenness, energy and refinement are all characteristic of this great man; great certainly, however opinion may differ as to his morality. He was the pope who put all Christendom under contribution by the sale of indulgences, in order to raise money for the completion of St. Peters at Rome, which roused the indignation of Martin Luther and was instrumental in bringing about the Reformation. In the hall of Mars, which comes after Apollo, the allegories on the wall allude to the success of Cosmo in war. Mars appears as the destroyer; there are battles on land and sea, then Victory followed by Peace and Abundance.

This apartment contains Raphael's celebrated Madonna della Seggiola, one of the loveliest of all the Madonnas. She is seen in side view, sitting in a low chair, holding the child on her knee; he leans on her bosom in a childlike attitude, while at her side St. John folds his little hands in prayer. She wears a manycolored handkerchief over her shoulders as was common among Italian women of the lower class. She appears as a beautiful, blooming woman with all the quietude of a serene nature, satisfied and happy. The child is plump and strong in form, with a serious trustful, wistful expression. The coloring is warm and exceedingly beautiful. It is said that while Raphael was watching a procession go by in Rome, he looked up and saw this woman and child at a window on the opposite side of the way, in exactly the attitude of the picture. He immediately

sought something on which to sketch them, but all he could find was the top of a barrel lately deposited near the place at which he was standing; he made the sketch on this extemporized makeshift. The Madonna looks out of the picture as she looked out of the window; the picture in form is round as it was sketched on the barrel top. This special Madonna is familiar to us all, it being frequently copied and photographed, yet one never tires of seeing it.

In this hall is also a Holy Family by Andrea del Sarto, a portrait of Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio, who wrote the "History of the War in the Netherlands"*. a sharp contrast to the narrative supplied us by Motley. Here also is Judith by Allori. The head of Holofernes is a portrait of the artist, and Judith is said to be that of his mistress. She is a beautiful woman, splendidly attired, pale with the passion and crime of her cruel night's work. In spite of its grandeur as a work of art, the picture is revolting to the feelings, and one turns with relief from it to some pleasanter subject.

In the hall of Jupiter, Cosmo is represented as being led by Hercules and Fortune into the presence of Jupiter. Here is Salvator Rosa's picture of the " Catiline Conspiracy." It is the best of his pictures. The faces and figures are those familiar to us in Naples-the costumes are those of Rome. The excitable Neapolitan face just suits the characters and makes an ideal picture. "The Fates," by Michael Angelo, is characteristic of that artist, although it is said by some that he did not paint it. The three women in different pose, with different expressions, are all portraits of one old woman, who came to Michael Angelo while he was conducting the defense of Florence, and offered her son to fight for the city. A picture here by Leonardo da Vinci, a portrait of Genevra Benci is attractive for its decision, purity of modelling and drawing. elling and drawing. The picture of St. Mark by Fra Bartelomeo is noted for its marvellous drapery.

In the hall of Saturn we see the last of Cosmo. He is here in mature life conducted by Mars and Prudence to receive the crown offered by Glory and Eternity. Although the application of these allegories is forced when we consider the * Della Guerra di Fiendra (Flanders), 1633-39.

character of Cosmo, the allegories themselves are beautifully executed, adding much to the richness and splendor of the apartments. In the last-named hall we find Raphael's picture of Julius II, an old man of dignified mien, sitting in an armchair in deep meditation. His eyes are piercing, deeply set under a projecting forehead, the nose is Roman, the lips firmly compressed; all the features are mobile and lifelike. It is the splendid execution of a great master. There are three or four copies of this picture; one in the Museum at Berlin. Had we space one could go on describing the masterpieces in this collection indefinitely, but we must hasten to other things. There are five hundred pictures, all by distinguished artists. The first five apartments just considered are the most interesting from their elaborate frescoing as well as from their connection with Cosmo I.

The Boboli garden which rises to some height behind the Pitti Palace, forming a lovely background, was purchased by Eleanor, wife of Cosmo I., from the Boboli family, who had their residence there. This singular and unromantic cognomen is pronounced Bō'-bō-lē; it admits of no softening, refining or beautifying. The garden itself is fairyland. Fountains, flowers, statues, tiny lakes and islands, vary its beauty and loveliness. Avenues of clipped bay and ilex form walls of foliage. One of these avenues leads to the amphitheatre where once the charming and elegant ladies and courtiers of Cosmo's court took their recreation in the open air, under Italian skies, three hundred years ago. From the highest part of the garden a magnificent view of Florence and the surrounding country is obtained. From here may be seen the Apennines, whose base touches her walls; green valleys and hills covered with vineyards or olive plantations; every place is studded with palaces and villas through all the Arno winding towards the city and the sea.

The Medici family, which throws a glamour of romance, as well as of historic interest, around the Pitti Palace, was in the main a magnificent set of scoundrels. Handsome, learned, accomplished, ambitious and unscrupulous, they ministered only to their own glory, the advancement of their own family. Before the fifteenth century, the family became

noted among the prosperous merchants of Florence, among whom their influence over affairs of state soon extended, while they carried on their mercantile trade till the fortune of the family grew to immense proportions. The most remarkable of the Medici were Cosmo or Cosimo, called Pater Patria, Leo X, and Catherine de' Medici, Queen of France.

Cosmo's character is a study; a shrewd and an acute man of business, a profound politician, far-seeing, broad, and liberal in mind, strong, self-controlled, often unscrupulous, yet generous, and with agreeable manners. He ruled the free republic of Florence without holding an office, or assuming a title, and estab lished his family so firmly in power that they retained the reins of government for centuries after he died. Though the founder of the famous Medici, it was not from Cosmo that the grand dukes of Tuscany were descended, but from his brother Lorenzo, whose great-grandson, after the extinction of the elder branch of the family, inherited their wealth and power. This young man possessed some of the able qualities of his great-granduncle Cosmo. Only seventeen years old when he came into possession of his rich inheritance, he at once showed himself master of the situation, assumed the title of duke, and was called Cosmo I. Heretofore the family had ruled Florence without a title, like the first Cosmo. It was Duke Cosmo who, in 1554, bought of Luca Pitti's grandson, the Pitti Palace, which henceforth became the home of the Medici, till the extinction of the family in 1737. This is the Cosmo I. who is portrayed in the frescoes on the walls.

The history of Luca Pitti, who founded the palace and gave it his name, is full of interest. He was wealthy and popular when he commenced to build; all the citizens were anxious to aid him in his undertaking; but having engaged in a plot against Pietro Medici (son of him whom they called Pater Patria), and being unsuccessful, he lost his wealth and popularity. Luca accomplished one thing, however; he raised a well-nigh imperishable monument to his name. Humbert, the present king of Italy, uses the Pitti Palace as a residence, and many years ago when Queen Victoria visited Italy she was entertained there.

S. A. NEVILLE.

HE telescope at the Paris Exposition will bring the image of the moon, as it were, within a mile of the earth.

It was formerly thought that the diameter of the object glass of a great telescope could not be increased beyond a certain number of inches without fatally diminishing its effectiveness. Object glasses rest on their edge, of course, and the weight of a very wide glass was so great that it increased the density of the lower part of its rim, on which its weight rested, and so modified the refraction of that part of the glass. Refraction is the bend, or change in its direction, which a ray of light undergoes upon passing through any denser body than the air.

Formerly object glasses were made very thick in the centre of their convexity, and so their focal distance, or the point at which all the rays passing through them crossed, was very near to the glass itself. The thicker an objective, the shorter the distance to where the focal point lies (back of it in the tube). With these thicker objectives and their short focus, very low power magnifying eyepieces to telescopes were used - not over a 1000-diameter eye-piece to the largest instruments.

But lately Alvan Clark and the Jena manufacturers have employed very much thinner objectives. Such objectives produce a focal point much farther back from them in the tube of the telescope. And this change of focal point has given rise to the use of eye-pieces of 4000 or 5000 magnifying power. The nearer the object to be magnified is brought to an eye-piece, the higher must be its magnifying power.

And so the old limitations of sizediameter in an objective, have been overcome. The objective of the Flower Observatory in the University of Pennsylvania is 18 inches in diameter; that at Princeton 20 inches; that at Harvard 24 inches; that at the University of Virginia 26 inches; that at the Lick Observatory 36 inches; that at Pulkowa, Russia, 38 inches; while the Yerkes objective is 40 inches in diameter. The glass which the Alvan Clark Company (Alvan and his

son are now both dead) is now making at Cambridge for the Paris Exposition of 1900 is 51 inches in diameter. It is a thin convex with a long focal distance.

Objectives of telescopes are duplex, consisting of a convexity of crown glass fitted tightly into a one-sided concavity of flint glass. This arrangement is necessitated by the fact that rays of different colors have a different angle of refraction in passing through convex crown glass. But these color rays are intercepted by the flint glass backing, and so the focal point is preserved.

The glass of these objectives must be of equal clearness or opacity throughout. Alvan Clark told Professor George F. Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania (Physics), that the delicacy of his objectives was altogether owing to his care in going over them personally; and wherever he discovered a comparatively opaque spot, he would dip his finger tip in rouge powder and gently rub the spot back and forth for a minute so exceedingly susceptible to this very slight friction are such highly finished and polished pieces of moulded glass.

The cost of great objectives is enormous. The Lick objective, which stands fourth in the list, cost $50,000. In making these objectives molten glass is poured into a pot. When the glass has cooled, the pot is chipped away from its mass, and, midway from the bottom, the crystal is sawed through twice-the section being a trifle thicker than the thickness of the centre of the objective. Out of this middle section the crown convex objective is made. The middle of the mould is most free from impurities and most uniform in density.

The tube of the Paris telescope will be 180 feet long. The image of the moca or planets is to be received upon a level mirror, 75 inches in diameter, and from that reflected on to a screen so rigged up that 600 people can view the wonderful revelations at one time. This Paris telescope, with its huge objective, will be peculiarly fitted to vivify and enlarge indistinct parts of large stars or planets or

suns.

S. MILLINGTON MILLER, M. D.

THE ELEMENTS OF BOTANY*

A

GREAT need is felt at present for outline lessons in the higher branches of study. Many young people who, for various reasons leave school soon after they have mastered the "Three R's," attempt, later in life, to further educate themselves. It is for such persons that outline lessons are indispensable. The ordinary text-books have indeed almost reached perfection, yet they do not meet the demands of the selfeducating class. The object of this outline is to give, in as few words and in as simple language as possible, the elementary features of Botany, so that a person who is entirely unfamiliar with the science can at once take it up and practice it.

Botanical instruction should begin with Phanerogamous (flowering) plants, and begin with the flower itself. Cryp togamous (flowerless) plants may be studied later on. A typical flower has the following parts: namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. Diagrams are invaluable in the study of the arrangement of the parts or the flower. To illustrate the cross-section of a flower, three circles are drawn, one within another. Suppose the flower to contain five of each of the component parts; namely, five sepals in the calyx, five petals in the corolla, five stamens, and five pistils. Separate the outer circle into five equal parts. Separate the next inner one in the same manner, making the parts alternate with those of the outer circle. Next divide the innermost circle into five equal parts, making them alternate with those of the second and fall opposite to those of the largest circle. Lastly, represent the five pistils in the centre of the smallest circle by placing five dots alternately with its parts.

This done, the names of the parts of the flower, represented by the diagram, should be thoroughly learned, thus: The outer circle, or floral envelope, is the calyx. Its parts are called sepals. The second circle, or envelope, is the corolla. It is composed of petals. The third circle is composed of stamens, the number of which is the same as that of the parts

* See the extensive and elaborate article (illustrated), on Botany by Prof. Balfour, in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. IV, pages 79–162.

in either of the outer circles, or a multiple of that number. The last and innermost circle is composed of pistils. By applying these names to the corresponding parts of the natural flower, and repeatedly pointing them out in flowers with which one comes in contact, they are easily and indelibly stamped upon the memory. No analytical work should be attempted until this is accomplished.

All flowers do not possess all the parts above named. Those, however, which do, are known as complete flowers; those which do not, as incomplete flowers. Again, those which possess stamens and pistils, regardless of the other parts, are perfect; those which possess but one of these two organs, are imperfect flowers. If all parts in the same circle are alike in shape and size, the flower is regular; otherwise it is irregular. When there is an equal number of parts in each circle, the flower is symmetrical; when otherwise arranged it is unsymmetrical.

When the names and terms thus far given are thoroughly learned, the terms polypetalous, monopetalous and apetalous need little or no explanation. These are the three divisions of the exogenous class of Phanerogamous plants. A few words, however, may not be superfluous. The polypetalous division is that in which the flowers possess both floral envelopes; namely, calyx and corolla, the latter being composed of separate petals. In the monopetalous division, the calyx and corolla both are present, but the petals of the corolla are united. In the apetalous division, either the calyx or the corolla is wanting.

Attention may now be given to collection or harborization. Plants should be studied, as much as possible, when in the living state. To be complete, a botanical specimen should have root, stem, leaves and flowers. It is even better to select specimens containing bud, open flower, and fruit or seed-pod. To dry specimens successfully, place them carefully between soft dry papers of several thicknesses and apply as much pressure as possible without crushing the plants. These papers should be changed every day at first; later on, as the plants dry, they may remain several days. The same papers may be dried and used again.

The necessary implements for ana

lytical work are a microscope, a sharp knife, and dissecting needles. The needles can be made by fastening medium-sized sewing needles in holders of wood.

At this point it is absolutely necessary to take up some manual on Botany. This will usually contain a glossary, and an analytical key to the orders of all the plants described. In using the key one will come in contact with new words which can all be found clearly defined in the glossary. The key leads to the orders of plants where its work ends. Under the order will be found the genera, under the genera, the species. The order, genera, and species constitute the botanical name of the plant.

In the analysis of plants, the name should not be the end and aim. The plant should be thoroughly studied. Its most minute parts should be examined, counted and described before the analytical work is begun. As it is impossible to analyze flowers to any advantage without the use of a manual which contains the analytical key and all the orders of plants to which it leads, it would be useless to give the key in connection with this outline. But, supposing the reader to have before him a manual, it will be helpful to trace a flower through the key to its botanical

name.

"Gray's New Lessons and Manual of Botany" is a comprehensive work and is extensively used. According to the key in this book the typical flower will be traced. The common flax is a good typical flower. The following is its analysis, preceded by the descriptive work above recommended. Thus, The flower is complete, i. e., it has all its parts. It is perfect, i. e., it has the essential organs : namely, stamens and pistil. It is regular having all parts in each circle alike in shape and size. It is polypetalous, having disconnected or separate petals. Now the key is used.

We find Series I to be Phanerogamous plants. It is with this series we have to deal. Under Series I is Class I, which is composed of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants. Class I suggests that it is not alone. Hence, before going further we must examine the other class. It consists of monocotyledonous or endogenous plants. The typical flower answers to Class I.

Under Class I come the three divisions, namely, polypetalous, monopetalous, and apetalous. Our flower answers to the first of these, namely, polypetal

ous.

Under polypetalous the following arrangements of stamens is recorded, namely (a) stamens numerous, at least more than ten, and more than twice the number of sepals. (b) Stamens of the same number as sepals and opposite to them. (c) Stamens not more than twice as many as petals, when of just the same number of the petals, then alternate with them. The typical flower has five stamens, which are alternate with the petals, therefore it comes under the third (c) arrangement.

IV.

Under this arrangement of stamens we find another subdivision, namely, I, Calyx free from the ovary, i. e., the ovary wholly superior. II. Calyx tube adherent to the ovary, at least to its lower half. In the typical flower the ovary is wholly superior, therefore it answers to the first of these subdivisions. This subdivision is further divided: I. Ovaries, two or more, and separate. II. Ovaries from two to five, united at the base, separate above. III. Ovaries, or lobes of the ovary, from three to five, with a common style. Ovaries, only one. The typical flower comes under the last (IV). Under Division IV it comes further under its subdivision II; namely, Ovaries compound as shown by the number of cells, placentæ, or stigmas. It contains five pistils and five stigmas. Next the ovary is described, and the ovary of the typical flower answers to the second description; namely, Ovary two to several-celled. Under the description of the ovary are regular and irregular flowers. Following out the regular flower we find stamens more minutely regarded, and our flower falls under the following division, namely, Stamens just as many, or twice as many as petals. Further, it is an herb having perfect and symmetrical flowers. It has twice as many cells to the ovary (divided) as it has sepals.

This lengthy description leads to the order Linaceæ, page 104 in the same book. Having found the order, there is no further need of the key. The next step is to determine the genus. This is easy where there is but one, namely, Linum. The third and last step is to determine the species. In this case