versal; it is found in China, in Greece, in Mexico, Central America, and Peru. The wave scroll and the so-called Vitruvian scroll are found figured on Peruvian pottery.

Man being a creature of instincts, which are a part of his nature in every clime, and are universal, the same superstitious customs, which are the offspring of these instincts, will crop out in different countries. The belief in ghosts and the evil eye is universal. The same customs to avert the terrors of ghosts and of the evil eye are had recourse to in countries the most unconnected. The missionaries Huc and Gabet were astonished to find an extraordinary resemblance between Popery and Buddhism. In this there was nothing extraordinary, as the features of idol worship are the same in all countries. A coincidence of errors is the natural result of the unenlightened stage of man's development, and is as natural as to find similar imperfections, which "flesh is heir to", crop out in man, in nations, however widely apart.

The human mind is continually repeating itself. We find a family likeness in all the mental manifestations of the human family. The same physiological phenomena appear generation after generation, century after century. All prophecies, oracles, witchcrafts, miraclemongers, table-turnings, spirit rappings, are but manifestations of the same human mind in an abnormal or diseased physical condition, these phenomena recurring at certain stages of man's development.

Development of Species and Race. Unity in typical structure and in one common nature, intellectual and physical, each species according to its distinct grade of development, is the connecting link between the diverse species of men.

Unity in typical structure and physical development is not enough to constitute an unity, or to establish an identity of species. A dog and a man have many things in common with regard to their typical structure. They have eyes, nose, mouth, ears, legs. A dog has reasoning powers, imagination; it shows the same passions with man; it exhibits anger, jealousy, love, generosity, fidelity, is taught by experience; yet no one will say that a dog and a man are of the same species.

The different expressions, unity of species, and oneness of the human species, seem to suggest different meanings. The unity of species would seem to imply that the entire human race was descended from one common stock; the oneness of the human species, that each species has many characteristics in common with the other species, and that they share the common instincts peculiar to the human race, and are endowed with a common typical structure, but still that each species has a separate and independent origin adapted to its position in the world, as in the lower animal creation several species share many instincts and distinct attributes in common, but still they are

distinct and separate species, fitted and adapted to their position in the world. The expressions, however, are used indiscriminately.

Unity in the intellectual and social development in man is the connecting link between the diverse races of men.

In accordance with the great scheme of nature, which is a system of gradation, there must be a gradation of the races of mankind. In corroboration of which we quote the following: "The leading characters of the various races of mankind are simply the representatives of particular stages in the development of the highest Caucasian type. The Negro exhibits permanently the imperfect brow, projecting lower jaw, and slender bent limbs of a Caucasian child some considerable time before the period of its birth. The aboriginal American represents the same child nearer birth. The Mongolian, the same child newly born." Therefore, if each race is a representative of a lower or higher stage of development, it follows as a necessary consequence that there must be a gradation of races from a lower to a higher race. The relative position of each species of the human family must depend on its degree of development. Each species is the representative of a stage of development forming a grade in the ascending scale. According to Humboldt, the inhabitants of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land appear to stand in the lowest grade of civilisation. Professor Owen considers the Andaman Islanders to be in the lowest grade.

The degree of development any people can attain to depends on the species they belong to. The Malay, the Mongolian, the Negro, can reach a certain stage of development alone, and no further. As proofs of the development of peoples being arrested at a certain stage, we may quote the following. The Sandwich Islanders make progress in the early part of their education, and are so far apt and quick as children of civilised Europeans, but at this point they stop, and seem incapable of acquiring the higher branches of knowledge. Negro children also exhibit the same incapability of progress beyond a certain stage.

The great difference between man and man is in the greater or less perfection of his organisation. As there are grades of relative perfection, from the Negro to the Caucasian, so there are grades of perfection in the individuals of any separate nation or town, each differing according to the greater or less refinement of organisation.

From the uniformity in the law of adaptation of everything in nature to its position in the world, it is evident that the Caucasian and the Negro must have a different origin and be separate races. For the Negro is by his physical constitution adapted to a warm climate, the Caucasian to a mild climate.

Is there anything unreasonable in supposing that the same God who created endless varieties of species in the lower animal creation, and assigned them a region of the earth adapted to their physical constitution, from the infinitesimal infusoria to the gigantic elephant, could have also created separate and distinct species of men, fitted by their physical constitution to their position in the world?

Capability of improvement and power to attain to the highest and most perfect stage of development are the distinctive characteristics of the Caucasian race alone. Bunsen gives the following formula as a basis for some striking results respecting the universal history of mankind: "The nations who speak the languages reducible to a common centre in High Asia, are the only tribes who hitherto have taken a place in the history of the world."

When St. Paul announced to the assembled Athenians that "all nations are of one blood", it must be remembered that this was proclaimed to the Caucasian race alone, and was meant to the Caucasian race alone as the only race then known. The Mongolian, the Malay, the American, were then unknown. The Negro was totally ignored.

Race may be considered as a separate line of growth or develop ment of one species, as the Saxon or Celtic races are distinct lines of growth of the Caucasian. In the opinion of Müller, "race" is derived, not from "radix", as was hitherto supposed, but from the old high German "reiza", line, lineage.

It has been said by Waitz (p. 265) that we see one and the same people proceed from barbarism to civilisation, and again relapse from its high state, and its capacities decline; but the cranial shape remains the same. This is the consequence of the law of development; in spite of cranial shape, peoples must have their rise, progress, maturity and decline; the law of development must be fulfilled. The Greek cranial shape still remains, but the Greek people have run through their cycle of development. It is the same with the individual man; however great may be his intellect, and however perfect the form of his head, the law of development must be fulfilled-he must pass through the stages of rise, maturity, and decline.

Man in his earliest stage of development was equally naked, both as to body and mind. Like other animals, without experience of the past, without knowledge of the future, he wandered through wilds and forests, guided and governed purely by the affections of his nature. In the words of Horace, quoted by Sir Charles Lyell, "men in this stage were a dumb and filthy herd; they fought for acorns and lurking places with their nails and fists, then with clubs, and at last with arms, which, taught by experience, they had forged. Man on emerging from this primitive barbarous stage became a nomadic hunter and

fisher, unacquainted with every art but the imperfect one of fabricating in a rude manner his arms and some household utensils, and of constructing and digging for himself an habitation, dependent on chance and the seasons for the means of satisfying his wants. In this stage the progress of man must have been extremely slow, as we still see evidences of it among the American Indians. As man advances, becoming conscious of the sustenance afforded by the animals he has tamed, and which he has learned to preserve and multiply, he becomes a shepherd, but to a certain extent continues a nomad, wandering with his flocks wherever pasture or security invites. In the further progress of his development, when no longer content with the fruit and plants which chance throws in his way, he learns to form a stock of them, to collect them around him, to sow, to plant them, to favour their reproduction by the labour of culture, he becomes stationary, and devotes himself to agriculture. The succeeding stage of his development is when, having acquired property in flocks, and in land which he has cleared and cultivated, and being anxious to secure quiet possession of what he had gained by his labour, conventions, tacit or expressed, were introduced into society, and became the rule of the actions of individuals, the measure of their claims, and the law of their reciprocal relations. Men experiencing the benefits derived from these, law and government were gradually evolved and developed. Law and government once established, the progress of the development of man increased rapidly until it reached that mature state when it culminated in the periods of high civilisation in Egypt, in Babylon, Nineveh, India.

Pickering remarks that it is a mistake to suppose that the pastoral or nomadic life is a stage in the progressive improvement of society. Pastoral life is as much a stage in the development of man, as childhood is a stage in the development of the individual man; many individuals, however, remain in a state of childhood all their life, but this is the result of an arrested development, and of course is an abnormal state. In those widely extended regions which Pickering mentions, where cultivation is impossible, all progress in development is necessarily checked.

All species and races have their cycles of development. Like the dodo of the Mauritius and the apteryx of New Zealand, whose species are now extinct, many races of men have run through their cycle of development, and become extinct. Several races in Europe and in Asia, and several tribes in America, have died out, and have completely passed away.

Development of Nations. The history of nations and peoples is but a history of developments, each people having its cycle of develop

ment. Egypt, Babylon, Nineveh, having run through their cycle of development, other cycles take their course of development, in Greece and Rome; the same rise, progress, and decay is repeated in Italy. England and France are now in their cycles of development.

The sequence of the several stages of development can be as plainly traced in nations as in the individual man.

Egypt may be adduced as the first instance of self-tuition and selfdevelopment in a nation; for we have no record that Egypt learnt. anything from any other nation. Egypt had kings, princes, and a form of government; Egypt had developed the arts and sciences requisite for the conception and execution of the stupendous monuments and works of art still extant, for many thousand years, when many of the surrounding countries were in a primitive and pastoral state.

In India we see the course of progressive development more strongly exemplified; for India, locked in by the Indus and the Himalaya, laying far away and apart, where even the faintest echoes of Greece or Europe could never reach her, ran through its solitary cycle, and worked out its own development alone. India has a literature of poetry and philosophy which reaches back to the earliest times, older than Troy and the Iliad, older than the Pentateuch; there were Indian poets before Homer lisped his first song; there were Indian thinkers and philosophers before Thales called water the apxn of all things.

That nations work out their civilisation independently, and go through their stages of development without connection, is exemplified also in the self-developed civilisation of Mexico and Peru, where the remains of cities, temples, and vast public works, erected by a people endowed with high intellectual acquirements, can be traced. There have been discovered a system of canals for irrigation, long mining galleries cut in the solid rock in search of tin, lead, and copper; pyramids not unlike those of Egypt; earthenware vases and cups; and manuscripts containing records of their history;-all testifying to a high degree of scientific culture and practical skill. Their calendars also present evidences of native and local origin. According to Mr. Fergusson, examples occur in Peru of every intermediate gradation in the style of masonry, precisely corresponding with the gradual progress of art in Latium, or any European country where the Cyclopean or Pelasgic style of building has been found.

There is no nation, however barbarous, which does not develope the germs of civilisation. Among the South Sea Islanders, when discovered by Cook, the applied sciences, if we may use the term, were not entirely unknown. They had observed something of the motions of the heavenly bodies, and watched with interest their revolutions, in order to apply their knowledge to the division of time. They were not entirely