We must point out another minute coincidence. From Col. iv. 15,- Salute Nymphas, and the church which is in his house,' we should infer that in this part of Asia a building had not yet been obtained of sufficient size to allow the disciples to meet all together in the same place; who, in consequence, were wont to assemble in one or more private houses. By referring to Phile mon (2), we find the same practice; for it appears that a church was held in Philemon's house. This coincidence becomes the more striking, if, as is possible, Nymphas, as well as Philemon, was a member of the general church at Colossæ.

There is yet another confirmatory remark. From the Letter to the Colossians, it does not appear why Tychicus was chosen as bearer of the Letter. From a passage in the Letter to the Ephesians (vi. 22), we might, indeed, have inferred that, as he was sent by Paul with a Letter to the church at Ephesus, so might he on that account have been sent with the Letter intended for the neighbouring church at Colossæ. But why sent to Ephesus? The reason appears from the Book of Acts (xx. 4), where it is incidentally mentioned that he was of Asia, that is Asia Minor. With good reason was Tychicus chosen. He was a fellow-countryman with the Ephesians and the Colossians. They, in all probability, knew him; and from him, consequently, could they, in confidence and in safety, receive Letters from Paul. At Colossæ the apostle had never been; but, in Tychicus, the disciples there had a neigh bour who came directly from Paul, to deliver to them a Letter which he had received for them from the great teacher. Good reason, therefore, had they, independently of its contents, to receive this Epistle; and in perfect security might they lay it up among the treasures of their church.

But the Letter was not to be hoarded. Paul enjoins that their neighbours, the Laodiceans, should be permitted to read the Epistle, after it had been read in the church meetings of the Colossians (iv. 16). In return, a Letter, which had been sent to Laodicea (some think this was our Letter to the Ephesians), was to be read in presence of the Colossian Christians. And thus we learn how intimately these neighbouring churches were united together, and may see how difficult it would have been for an impostor to induce them to receive a fabrication. We are also taught, that thus early was a foundation laid for a collection of Christian writings. These two Epistles, which were thus to be exchanged, would in a short time be transcribed, and copies of both be preserved in each of these churches.

We ask the reader to put together these

numerous considerations, to weigh their character, to consider how scattered are the elements of which they are made up, and yet how clear and striking is the evidence which they give,—and then to say whether such testimonies could exist, were the Scriptures, of which we have spoken, any thing else than genuine documents. But if one Letter - if the Letter to the Colossians is proved to have been written not long after the middle of the first century, and by the hand of the apostle Paul, then does Christianity rest on a solid historical foundation, and we have not followed cunningly devised fables' (2 Pet. i. 16).

COMFORTER (comfort, M. L. cum and fortis, to strengthen), the English rendering of the Greek Paraclete, which, according to its formation, is equivalent to the Latin advocatus, our advocate,' one, that is, who is called to (give aid); hence, an assistant, helper, or defender, one who stands by your side for your succour. It is applied by the apostle John (to whom the use of the term is confined), I. To the Lord Jesus, being translated advocate' (2 John ii. 1), one who supplicates the Almighty for the pardon of sin. II. To the Holy Spirit, promised to his apostles, by Jesus, as his substitute (John xiv. 16, 26; xv. 26; xvi. 7). In these passages some explain comforter as meaning teacher, interpreter; others, as simply helper. Bretschneider prefers the general signification of defender, - - one who should conduct the cause of the apostles, by instructing them what to do, to teach, and how to defend themselves before ecclesiastical and civil powers. This interpretation is not only recommended by the parallel passages in the other Gospels (Matt. x. 19, 20. Mark xiii. 11. Luke xii. 11, seq.; xxi. 15), but also by the use of the word among the rabbins (Buxtorf, Lex. p. 1483), who translate the correspondent Hebrew word by defender, one who deprecates (Job xvi. 21; xxxiii. 23).

COMPANIES TRAVELLING is the English rendering in Isa. xxi. 13 ('O ye travelling companies of Dedanim ') of a Hebrew word which is appropriately represented by the Arabic term caravan (Kar revan 'travelling merchandise'), or large bodies of men and cattle organised under certain strict regulations, and travelling for commercial, religious, and other purposes, from one part of the east to another. The passage in Isaiah, which supplies us with the title of this article, presents a lively picture, in which may be seen a collection of Arab merchants, who, travelling through the woody deserts of Arabia, are set upon by a horde of Arab robbers, and put to flight. They take refuge in a neighbouring village, Tema, where they are received with characteristic hospitality; shelter being given to the fugitive, water to the thirsty, and bread to the famishing. Permanency is one great characteristic of

In Gen. xxxvii. 25, mention is made of another caravan,-a company of Ishmaelites engaged in the spice trade, conveying down into Egypt spicery, balm, and myrrh' from Gilead, which, being on the east of Jordan, lay on a great commercial highway that united eastern products with western markets (comp. Gen. 1. 9. Job vi. 19. 2 Chron. ix. 1. Jer. xxxi. 8). This caravan of Bedouins dealt in slaves as well as in aromatics; and they accordingly purchased Joseph, took him to Egypt, and sold him.

The term caravan is applied also to a migratory band of Arabs. Thus Robinson, speaking in reference to the northern end of the Gulf of Akabah:-'Just at this point we met a large caravan of the Haweitat coming from the eastern desert, whence they had been driven out by the drought. They were now wandering towards the south of Palestine, and had with them about seventy camels and many asses, but no flocks. These were real Arabs of the desert, decorated with the kefiyeh, a handkerchief of yellow or some glaring colour,-thrown over the head, and bound fast with a skin of woollen yarn, the corners being let loose, and hanging down the sides of the face and neck. They were wild savage hungry-looking fellows.'

In caravans was most of the travelling done in the times of the Bible. The Mosaic journeyings in the wilderness and to the borders of Palestine were performed in one very large caravan. It was in caravans that the Jews returned from their exile in Assyria. By caravans the staple trades of ancient days were carried on in a direction from east to west. The periodical visits made from all parts of the Holy Land, on the great festivals, to Jerusalem, were accomplised in lesser caravans; and, when the reader has finished this article, he will readily see how easy it was for the child Jesus to be lost from the sight of his parents. The Galilean caravan, mustering on the north side of the metropolis, proceeded homewards without Jesus; for all was bustle, confusion, and joy. The first day's journey was, in all cases, short. When nightfall came, the tents were erected, and families assembled; then, for the first time, as was natural, Jesus was missed. Joseph and his mother, supposing him to be in the company' (caravan), sought him among kinsfolk and acquaintance. Not finding him, they hastened to retrace their steps; and, after three days (that is, on the third day from their departure from Jerusalem, the day of departure being reckoned one), they found him in the temple. All this is perfectly in keeping with what we know of caravans from other sources.

Yet, though travelling generally was conducted in caravans, the Scriptures contain no direct information on, and few allusions to, the subject. They employ language, indeed, which implies the existence of caravans; and, for the right and full understanding of which, a knowledge of this mode of travelling is necessary: but they give no professed instruction on the matter, and their reference to it is only incidental. Here was a whole world of active life, by which commerce, religion, and social intercourse, were chiefly sustained, proceeding under the eyes of the Biblical writers, without their doing more than allude to small and individual portions of it, in the most casual and vague manner.

The remark is made in order to aid the student of Holy Writ to form a right conception of its character. First, it does not follow that a thing had no existence in the ancient times of Sacred history, because it is not expressly mentioned in the Bible. Secondly, the object of that Sacred Volume was clearly not of a scientific nature. Its penmen did not intend to compose history, or describe scenes, or construct treatises. They simply narrated such events as had a religious impress and tendency. And in their narratives they were either unconscious and unassuming chroniclers, or inspired prophets; concerned alike, in both characters, to advance at once the will of God, and the good of man. Speculation and disquisition were alien to their habits, and remote from their thoughts. If ever they indulged in abstract inquiries, it was to moralize; on religion and Providence only, that is, on their own appropriate subjects, did they venture to rise on the wings of thought and meditation.

The use of travelling companies' arose from peculiarities of Oriental life, which have not yet come to a period. Cities in the East, the great marts of commerce, lay very remote from each other. Nor were they united by any artificial roads. To go from one to another, the traveller had to pass hundreds or thousands of miles, through sands and deserts, over hills and mountains, aided only by a general track gradually formed by his predecessors; exposed constantly to attacks from predatory hordes; succoured by the hand of no general government; welcomed, when night came, by no refreshing services; and, in a word, dependent exclusively on his own resources. Hence the formation of a travelling company,' which, consisting of many persons under proper discipline and supervision, could, with the aid of the horse and the camel, convey, in safety with themselves, merchandise, food, and shelter; and, under the care of a few professed soldiers, were able to act as convoy to others,-whether they were bent on purposes of ceremony and pleasure, or filled with the pious design of visiting some distant sanctuary of religion.

'Our departure from the convent created a scene of indescribable confusion. Several hundred Bedouins were assembled below the window through which we had entered, and by which our cumbrous baggage, as well as our persons, must be lowered to the earth. This employed the greater part of the day. Some mistakes would unavoidably occur. Trunks, water, &c. were placed on the wrong camels, and must be re-assorted, and properly distributed at the outset. On such occasions, the Bedouins are filled with excitement. They do not speak to explain, inquire, or remonstrate, but at the top of their voices; and their gestures are all violent and even furious. I was compelled to plunge into the midst of the throng, in order, as far as possible, to give to my efforts the right direction. I never dwelt an hour in the midst of such bewildering and unutterable confusion, and have seldom felt more pleasure

than I did when I mounted my dromedary, after having seen my baggage made fast to the packsaddles with ropes. Our encampment this morning (March 19) presented a very picturesque and imposing aspect. We were reinforced at the convent, and now number eight tents, and are in all fifteen travellers; of whom six are English, four Americans, three Austrians; one is Scotch, and one a Venetian. This is the largest party of Franks who have ever passed the desert to Petra.

'Our repose during the night had been disturbed by much loud and angry debate; and now a fierce quarrel arose, which threatened the most serious consequences. After very high words, the Bedouins drew their swords; and I was drawn out of my tent, where I sat writing, by the clashing of weapons. This was the signal for those who had taken no part in the quarrel, and were attending to their camels outside of the camp, or sitting under the shelving rock of the mountains, to rush to the scene of action. They ran from all directions, drawing their swords as they advanced; and the few who

had none, brandished heavy clubs. I never saw such fury expressed in the human countenance, to which their violent words and gestures were well suited. A frightful conflict appeared unavoidable. The matter reached its crisis, the moment the combatants had assembled, and a few in the midst of the crowd had crossed their swords. I believe not a drop of blood was shed. The clamour gradually subsided, and in ten minutes the angry multitude was again dispersed through the valley. Threatening words were now and then heard from small groups of three or four, like the pattering that follows a storm; and it was not till the ensuing evening, that perfect quietness was restored.

When every thing was ready for our departure, a new difficulty arose with the Be douins. The loading of the camels for the first time, at the beginning of a journey, never fails to produce a scene of wrangling and confusion. Every guide tries to get away with the lightest load possible, as what he now consents to take he is likely to be required to carry to the end of the journey. Consequently, before one third of the customary burden is laid on his camel, he begins to protest against receiving another pound, and declares that the beast will never be able to rise with such a mountain on his back. The traveller who does not wish to pay for half a dozen useless animals, remonstrates as well as he can in broken Arabic. His dragoman (interpreter) raves and threatens; and probably the Bedouin, in a soaring passion, seizes another bag or bundle, and throws it with violence on the load, protesting that nothing shall induce him to take any more. The sheikh must now be sent for, who raises another louder and more furious tempest of words. It is all in vain: the guide is immoveable. The sheikh or dragoman, however, lays on another article of baggage in spite of him, which he indignantly seizes, and throws on the ground. Then he consents to add this last item to the burden of his already doomed beast, and so on till, at the end of an hour or more, he has perhaps got a reasonable load. The next, and a few subsequent mornings, there is complaining and wrangling enough; but no serious difficulty is experienced after the initiatory controversy.'

'We are now,' says the same author, in proceeding to pass from Suez to Sinai, a large caravan, numbering nearly fifty camels, and about as many Egyptian servants and Bedouin guides. Our movements are rendered rather more tardy by the length of our train; but it gives additional interest to the scene. The Bedouins are full of glee and animation, and talk, sing, and quarrel with inconceivable vivacity. Their step is light and elastic, and they seem utter strangers to fatigue. We sually travel nine hours in the

day, without making any stop. The little refreshment which our time and circumstances allow us, is taken on the backs of the camels. It is no trifling matter to descend from one of these formal and awkwardly-limbed animals, besides the disagreeable jolting occasioned by his kneeling, and by the abruptness, and even violence, with which he rises, as soon as he feels the additional weight upon his back. To avoid these inconveniencies, as well as loss of time, the traveller is provided with a small leathern bottle of water, and, if his taste require it, with brandy or wine, to quench his thirst, and a bag or basket of eatables. Those who make elaborate provision for the appetite, often manifest much skill and good taste in a variety of fruits and viands, and in their convenient arrangement upon the camel. I usually walk an hour or two in the morning, and again before stopping for the night. This is a great relief from the fatigue of incessant riding; and, besides, affords interesting opportunities for minute and leisurely observations.'

In obedience to a law of the Koran, which requires every Mussulman to perform a pilgrimage to Mecca, once at least in his life, vast numbers of pilgrims flock thither every year from different parts of the world. The regular pilgrim caravans are six or seven in number. That from Syria, which used to be accompanied by the caliphs in person, sets out from Constantinople, and collects the pilgrims from Northern Asia, until it reaches Damascus. During the whole route, for the sake of safety and convenience, it is attended from town to town by the armed force of the district. From Damascus to Medina, it moves with great pomp across the desert, a journey of thirty days. The Pacha of Damascus, or one of his principal offieers, always attends it, and gives the signal for encamping and departing by firing a musket. The different classes of pilgrims know their exact stations, and always place their tents according to their town or province. At every stage is a castle or storehouse for provisions, with a small garrison, and a large tank at which the camels water. These stations are seldom farther distant from each other, than a march of eleven or twelve hours. The usual time of travelling is from three o'clock in the afternoon, to an hour or two after sunrise next day; torches being lighted during the night.

Among the pilgrims are to be found dervises of every sect and order in the Turkish empire: many of them are madmen, or at least assume the appearance of insanity; and as the Mohammedans regard them as saints or inspired beings, sent as a blessing to them from heaven, they are much respected by the devotees, who scruple not to fill their pockets with money. The behaviour of some of them is indecent, and so violent that many

willingly give them a trifle to escape from their importunities. Most of the pilgrims that arrive in detachments, and before the caravans, are professed merchants, who occupy the interval very pleasantly, in disposing of their wares, praying, smoking, reading the Koran, enjoying the gratifications of sense, and anticipating the happiness of futurity. Except mendicants, almost every haji or pilgrim combines with his religious duties some little mercantile adventure, with a view to lessen his expenses. The Mogrebbins, for example, bring their red bonnets and woollen cloaks; the western Turks, shoes and slippers, hardware, embroidered stuffs, sweetmeats, amber, trinkets of European manufacture, knit silk purses, and other small wares; the Anatolians bring carpets, silks, and Angora shawls; the Persians, Cash. mere shawls, and large silk handkerchiefs; the Afghans, tooth-brushes made of the spongy boughs of a tree in Bokhara, yellow beads, and plain course shawls of their own manufacture; the Indians import the numerous productions of their rich and extensive regions; and the people of Yemen bring snakes for the Persian pipes, sandals, and various articles in leather.

In general, the regular caravans have fixed periods for their arrival. Those from Syria and Egypt unite their routes at Bedr, whence they proceed to Mecca at a short distance from each other. The approach of the foremost is announced by a horseman, who comes galloping through the town to the governor's house; · -a prize being always awarded to him who brings the first tidings of its approach. So severe are the efforts made, that the horse has been known to drop down dead the moment that it had reached the holy place.

The pomp and magnificence of this moving solemnity are still considerable, though much diminished since the time of the caliphs, both in point of splendour and attendance. When Solyman performed the pilgrimage (A.D. 716), nine hundred camels were employed in transporting his wardrobe alone. Mahadi, besides the vast sums he expended in presents, built fine houses at every station between Bagdad and Mecca, and caused them to be splendidly furnished. He was the first caliph that carried snowwater with him to cool his sherbet on the road; a luxury in which he was imitated by many of his successors. Haroun al Raschid, who performed the pilgrimage nine times, spent in one of his visits nearly a million and a half of gold dinars, equal to £693,750, in presents; in another, he and his wife Zobeide, accomplished the journey from Bagdad, nearly a thousand miles, on foot; but the merit, if there was any, was lessened, as the whole road was covered daily with fine carpets, on which they walked. The retinue of the mother of Mostasem, who visited

Mecca in 1231, contained twelve thousand camels. On a similar occasion, the equipage of the sultan of Egypt consisted of five hundred camels, used solely for transporting sweetmeats and confectionary; two hundred and eighty for pomegranates, almonds, and other fruits: his travelling larder was provided with one thousand geese, and three thousand fowls.

In 1814, the Syrian caravan, which was reckoned small, amounted only to four or five thousand persons, and was attended by fifteen thousand camels. The Barbary caravan sometimes contained forty thousand men; but of late it has not exceeded six or eight thousand. That from Egypt used to be extremely numerous. Barthema states, that, when he was at Mecca, it had sixty-four thousand camels. In 1814, it consisted principally of Mohammed Ali's troops, with very few pilgrims; but in 1816, a single grandee of Cairo joined the haj, with a hundred and ten camels, for the transport of his baggage and retinue; and his travelling expenses alone, Burckhardt supposes, could not have been less than £10,000. The wife of Ali had a truly royal equipage, comprehending five hundred beasts of burden. The tents of the public women and dancing girls were among the most splendid in this curavan. Females are not excluded from performing the pilgrimage; but the law prescribes that they shall be married women, and accompanied by their husbands, or some very near relation.

There was one distinction formerly common to all large caravans, but now used only by the Syrian and Egyptian. Each of these has its holy camel, carrying on its back the mahmal, with presents for the Kaabah, and which also serves the purpose of a sign or banner. This appendage is described as a high, hollow, wooden frame, in the shape of a cone, having a pyramidal top covered with a fine silk brocade, and adorned with ostrich feathers. A small book of prayers and charms is placed in the middle, wrapped up in a piece of silk.

Kerbela, which lies beyond the Euphrates, a holy city like Mecca, still attracts every year from fifty to a hundred thousand pilgrims, among whom are long files of horse men, clad in picturesque costume, women hidden beneath their thick veils, and dervises of every shade, mingled with the Moukaris, who conduct the famous caravan of the dead. The corpses, embalmed with camphor, which is the sacred scent of the Persians, are wrapped in shrouds covered with inscriptions, near Bagdad. They are then laid in rude coffins, and placed on mules. A Turkoman,' says our authority, 'whom I questioned, said he had been on his journey a hundred and ten days. He came from Kokhand, on the frontiers of Eastern China. Each sectary well-to-do in Persia or India,