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REDAN-REDEMPTIONISTS.

In America, the name R. is often given to the Blue Bird (q. v.).

REDA'N is the simplest work in field-fortification. weak, not much noticed amidst the many voices of It consists of two parapets whose faces join in summer, but often heard in the quietness of autumn, forming a salient angle towards the enemy, like and even of winter, throughout which it is continued a letter V, in which the apex is to the front. whenever the weather is good. Regarded by itself, the redan is a work of very little strength, since there is no flanking fire to protect its faces, and nothing to prevent an enemy RED COLOURS. Those used by painters confrom forcing an entrance at the gorge; but redanssist of certain chemical compounds, natural or are useful in many positions, and the rapidity with artificial. Thus, the red pigment called Armenian which they may be constructed, renders them Bole, is either the ochreous earth known by that favourites with engineers and generals. A row of redans along an exposed front of an army adds much to its strength, the troops behind protecting the gorge, and the redans flanking each other. It the gorge, and the redans flanking each other. It forms an excellent defence for a bridge-head, the gorge being covered by the river. Redans figured largely in Wellington's works for defending Lisbon in 1810. The redan of Sebastopol in 1855 was the principal point of the English attack, and the scene of two bloody repulses by the Russians in June and September.

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places, or else, as is most frequently the case, it is a name, imported from Armenia, Tuscany, and other composition of whiting, red oxide of iron, and red ochre. Vermilion is a sulphuret of mercury produced either naturally or artificially. Chrome-red is made by boiling carbonate of lead with chromate of potash in excess, until it assumes a red colour, after which it is washed in pure water, and dried in the shade. Indian-red is a native product of Persia, being found in the neighbourhood of Ormuz. It is imitated by calcining colcothar with red ochre. Light-red is made by calcining yellow ochre, and this can be converted into flesh-colour by a due admixture of white. A bright orange-red, sometimes called Sandix, is made by calcining whitelead. Minium, or Red Lead, is a very distinct red colour, requiring but little preparation; it is much used. Red ochre is extensively found in the Mendip Hills, and is an oxide of iron; with clay, it forms a brownish-red paint. There are several other red colours, but these are the principal ones employed by painters.

RED DEER. See STAG.

REDDITCH, a large manufacturing town of Worcestershire, stands on an acclivity 12 miles south-south-west of Birmingham, with which it is connected by railway. Needles, pins, fish-hooks and fishing-tackle, are made extensively. Pop. (1861) 5571.

REDBREAST (Erythaca rubecula, or Sylvia rubecula), a bird of the family Sylviada, familiar to every one in the British Islands and throughout most parts of Europe-a universal favourite, from the readiness with which it approaches or enters human habitations, its lively manners, its aspect of pert curiosity, the frequency with which its song is heard in autumn and winter, and the strange mixture of shyness and audacity which its behaviour displays. It is generally known throughout Britain by the endearing name of Robin Redbreast, or more briefly Robin, and has many similar appellations in continental Europe, significant of the RED CRAG, a deposit of quartzose sand interkindly regard entertained for it, which is every-mixed with rolled and comminuted shells, of a deep where such that children early begin to distinguish ferruginous or ochreous colour, which occurs in it from all other birds as their peculiar favourite. Suffolk, and belongs to the Pleiocene strata (q. v.). Its utmost length is about 5 inches, but it is of a rounder and fuller form than many of the Sylviada, the slenderness of its legs rather strikingly contrasting with the form of the body. The wings are rather short, the fifth quill the longest. The tail is scarcely forked. The bill is rather broad and depressed at the base, narrower and slightly compressed at the point, the upper mandible bent down and notched. The general colour is olivebrown, and the reddish-orange breast is a conspicuous characteristic, particularly of the male. The R. is a native not only of Europe, but of the western temperate parts of Asia and of the north of Africa. In the most northern parts of Europe it does not appear; and in many northern regions it may be regarded as a bird of passage; but, contrary to the ordinary rule as to birds of passage, it never congregates in flocks; it is always seen either solitary or in pairs. The attachment of pairs seems to extend beyond the mere breeding season, and, indeed, throughout their lives, and to be stronger than in most birds. The breeding season is early in spring. The nest is made of moss, dead leaves, and dried grass, lined REDEMPTION, in Law, the right of redeeming with hair, often placed a little above the ground property which has been pledged to secure a debt. in a bush or among ivy on a wall; the eggs five to The equity of redemption is the name given to this seven in number, white, spotted with pale reddish- right, and is commonly used in reference to mortbrown; but many are the stories of the curious gages of real estate, the mortgagor, after executing situations in which the R. has built its nest, in a deed of mortgage, having a right at any time to close proximity to houses and workshops, regard-pay off the debt, and redeem or get back his proless of the presence of human beings, and of the perty, unless he has been foreclosed by the creditor noise of hammers and wheels. In winter, the R. by a legal proceeding, the object of which is to sell In Scotland, the seeks the neighbourhood of human habitations the property to pay the debt. more than in summer, and becomes more bold equity of redemption is more usually called a and familiar. Its food ordinarily consists of worms, insects, and berries; and when it becomes pensioner at any door or window, which it very readily does, it shews a particular relish for small scraps of meat. Its song is sweet and plaintive, but

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REDDLE, RADDLE, or RED-CHALK, an ochrey red-clay iron ore, which is chiefly imported from the continent, where it is found in Hessia, Thuringia, Upper Lusatia, Silesia, and Salzburg. It is found in small quantities in England, in the neighbourhood of Rotherham, and at Wastwater, Cumberland. The English differs somewhat in quality from the foreign, and is chiefly used in polishing spectacle glasses. Of that from abroad, the finest quality is used for drawing on paper; the inferior sorts are used by carpenters and others for marking with; and the commonest is used for marking sheep. It occurs generally in thin beds, in clay-slate.

reversion.

REDEMPTIONISTS, one of the names of an order of monks devoted to the redemption of Christian captives from slavery. They are more frequently called TRINITARIANS (q. v.).

REDEMPTORISTS-REDOUBT.

REDEʼMPTORISTS, called also LIGUORIANS, a RED-HOT SHOT are cannon-balls heated to congregation of priests founded by St Alfonzo Liguori redness, and fired from cannon at shipping, (q. v.).

RED-EYE, the Ambloplites rupestris, Raf., a fish of the Perch family, related to the sun-fish (Pomotis). It is found in all the tributaries of the Mississippi, and is an excellent table-fish; it reaches a weight of 2 pounds. Also (Leuciscus erythrophthal

Red-eye, or Rudd (Leuciscus erythrophthalmus).

mus, see LEUCISCUS), a fish of the family Cyprinidæ, common in lakes, slow rivers, fens, &c., in many parts of Europe and in England. It much resembles its congener, the Roach (q. v.), but is shorter and deeper. It is a richly-coloured fish.

RED GUM is the popular name for the papulous disease of the skin known to the physician as strophulus. It is a florid eruption, usually occurring in infants before or during their first dentition, and appearing on the most exposed parts, as the face, neck, arms, and hands, from whence it sometimes extends to other portions of the body. It occurs in minute red pimples, irregularly arranged, with occasional red patches, and sometimes a few interspersed vesicles. White pimples, popularly known as white gum, are also sometimes intermingled with the red papillæ. Strophulus is almost always an acute disease, seldom lasting more than a month. It is almost always an innocent complaint, and often occurs without any marked disturbance of the general health. In severe cases, the pimples cause a sensation of heat and itchiness, especially if the child is kept too warm, and slight febrile symptoms manifest themselves. Amongst the probable causes of this disease are the irritation caused by rough flannel next the skin, want of cleanliness of the skin-especially in relation to the child's excretions—the general disturbance of the system excited by teething, &c. Very little is required in the way of treatment further than to remove any obvious cause of the affection. Cold applications should be carefully avoided, lest they should translate the cutaneous irritation to some important internal organ. In the event of such a translation, the child should be placed in a hot bath, and mustard poultices, or hot moist cloths sprinkled with turpentine, should be applied over the arms and chest. RED HAND, in Heraldry. A sinister hand erect, open, and couped or, the wrist gules, being the arms of the province of Ulster, was granted to the baronets of England and of Ireland as their distinguishing badge, on the institution of that order in 1611, and is borne by the baronets of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom. It is assumed into the armorial coat, and may be borne upon a canton, or on an escutcheon, which may be placed either in the middle chief or in the fess point, so as least to interfere with the charges composing the family arms.

magazines, wooden buildings, &c., to combine destruction by fire with battering by concussion. In modern warfare, shells containing molten iron are intended to be used in lieu of red-hot shot; but they have not yet been tested in actual practice, although a similar device was attempted unsuccessfully in 1863 by the United States forces when besieging Charleston.

REDING, ALOYS VON, the famous champion of Swiss independence, was born in 1755, in the canton of Schwyz. After serving in Spain, he returned to Switzerland in 1788. As captaingeneral of the canton of Schwyz, he repulsed the French Republicans, May 2, 1798, at Morgarten. After the formation of the Helvetic Republic, R. was one of those who eagerly worked for the restitution of the old federal constitution. In 1802, he founded in the eastern parts of Switzerland a league, with the intention of overthrowing the central government. When, after the departure of the French, almost all the cantons declared themselves against the Helvetic government, R. called a general diet at Schwyz, which assembled September 27, 1802, and occupied itself with the formation of a new independent constitution. R. went to Paris, in order to win over the First Consul to the proposed change. In spite of all his endeavours, however, he failed to succeed. The disarmament of the Swiss by a French army, and the acceptance of the act of mediation, put an end to his hopes and to his political activity. In 1803, he officiated still as Landamman, or chief magistrate, of Schwyz; but after that retired into private life till 1809, when he was invested once more with the same dignity. In 1813, R. conducted the negotiations with the allies in regard to the neutrality of Switzerland. He died in February 1818, leaving the character of an honest man, whose political career might have been more successful, had he not been wanting in firmness of mind and of character.

RED-LIQUOR, a chemical compound much used by dyers. It is a crude acetate of alumina, and is commonly prepared in dyeing establishments by dissolving a quantity of alum in boiling water, and separately dissolving, also in hot water, threefourths as much acetate of lead. The two solutions are next mingled together; and after settling, the clear fluid, which is the red-liquor, is poured off. The sediment is sulphate of lead.

REDOUBT is a small fort of varying shape, constructed for a temporary purpose, and usually without flanking defences. The term is vague in its acceptation, being applied equally to detached posts and to a strong position within another fortress. Redoubts as a general rule do not exceed 40 yards square, with 4 guns and a Redoubts are made square, garrison of 320 men.

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Each redoubt

even circular. pentagonal, and has parapet, ditch, scarps, banquette, &c., as in regular fortification; but it is commonly rather roughly constructed, haste and unprofessional labour precluding mathematical accuracy. The entrance may be by a cutting through the parapet, as at a, in fig. 1, the cutting being covered within by a traverse; or, preferably, by an excavated gallery leading into the ditch, and thence by a ramp through the counterscarp. For the sake of flanking the ditch, and preventing an assaulting party from forming in it, caponnières of timber, loopholed, are sometimes formed, as at b; or, if the soil be stiff or chalky, a gallery may be cut behind the counterscarp, and loopholed towards the ditch. In some modern redoubts, the line of

each side is as in fig. 2.

REDOUT KALE-RED RIVER SETTLEMENT.

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Fig. 1.

not defending their own ditches, and of being approached at their salient angles with comparative impunity. They are therefore not adapted to a protracted defence, but as temporary field works, or in a war of posts, they are often of incalculable importance. Troops whose stability in the open field is doubtful, are especially strengthened by redoubts

branch runs for 60 miles between perpendicular banks, 600 to 800 feet high. It is navigable for 8 months of the year to Shreveport. Thirty miles above this place is the Great Red River raft, formed of drift-wood, which blocks up the river for 60 or 70 miles. Its other important towns are Alexandria and Natchitoches.

RED RIVER OF THE NORTH rises in a cluster of lakes in Western Minnesota, U.S., near the sources of the Mississippi, and runs north, separating Minnesota from Dacotah, into the British possessions, and empties into Lake Winnipeg, about 500 miles from its source, watering a beautiful country, and receiving numerous branches, the chief of which are the Shyenne, the Pembina, and the Assiniboine.

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RED RIVER SETTLEMENT, now known as the province of Manitoba, is intersected by the Red River of the North and the Assiniboine, and lies between lat. 49° and 53° 30′ N., and long. 960 and 99° W. It formis a small part of the territories formerly governed by the Hudson's Bay Company, and was purchased from them by the Earl of Selkirk in 1811, for the purpose of planting a colony. In the deed of transfer, its boundary-line is defined to begin at a point on the western shore of Lake Winnipeg in 52° 30′ N. lat.; thence running due west to Lake Winnipegoos; thence in a southerly direction, so as to strike its western shore in lat. 52° N.; thence due west to the intersection of the parallel of 52° N. lat. and the Assiniboine River; then due south to the height which separates the waters of Hudson's Bay from those of the Missouri and Mississippi; thence east along that height to the source of the Winnipeg, or the principal branch of the waters which flow to the mouth of the Winnipeg River; thence in a northerly direction to the middle of Lake Winnipeg, and thence west to the place of beginning. This boundary was, however, curtailed some time afterwards, by the claim of in their line. Redoubts the United States to all the land south of lat. 49° are particularly useful in N. The western portion of the original tract is fortifying the tops of hills, one bleak plain, with a few shrubs scattered or commanding passes, or here and there, and devoid to a great extent of where the object is to irrigating streams; while the eastern side presents occupy a hostile territory, a varied landscape of hill and dale, the latter low, or to feel the way gradually through a wooded level, and marshy, and both well wooded. The country. winters are long, dreary, and excessively cold, the REDOUT KALÉ, a flourishing, fortified seaport thermometer sometimes reaching -45° F., rising in of Russia in Trans-Caucasia, stands on the eastern summer to 95° or 105° in the shade. shore of the Black Sea, 10 miles north of Poti. It is nevertheless very healthy, the only prevalent is the port of Tiflis (q. v.), carries on a considerable diseases being those which are induced by sudden trade, and has regular steam-boat communication changes of temperature. The land under cultivation with Trebisond, Smyrna, Constantinople, and is extremely productive, and the natural pasture in Marseille. Its chief articles of import are cotton, summer affords splendid facilities for the breeding silk, and woollen stuffs; sugar-cane, wine, spices, of horses, sheep, and cattle.

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Fig. 2.

The climate

A number of the

and hardwares. The principal exports are raw colonists are buffalo hunters, and others resort silk, wax, wool, skins, caviare, and timber. The to the lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba, where they quantity of silk exported is 10,000 puds (value gain a subsistence by fishing in these inexhaustible £68,000) a year. All the other exports taken All the other exports taken waters. The first settlers were emigrants from the together do not amount to more than £12,000 a north of Scotland, who spoke Gaelic, and professed year. During the Crimean War, the Russian garrison at R. K., finding the fort invested by Sir Edmund Lyons with several men-of-war, set fire to the town, 19th May 1854. It has since, however, been rebuilt and strengthened. Population inconsiderable, though increasing.

REDPOLE. See LINNET.

RED RIVER, the lowest western branch of the Mississippi, rises on the eastern border of New Mexico, flows eastward, separating Texas from the Indian territory, thence south-east through Louisiana, and enters the Mississippi 341 miles from its mouth. It is 2100 miles long, and receives numerous branches, the Washita, Negro, Big and Little Wichita, &c. Near its source, the south

Presbyterianism. They were joined by 100 Canadian veterans and a fresh colony of Scotch in 1815; and subsequently by French Canadians, French-Indian and English-Indian half-breeds from the territory of the North-west Company, and a few immigrants of other nations. The colonists, after having been brought almost to the verge of ruin from the attacks of the North-west Company, the extreme severity of winter, inundations by the swollen waters of the Red River, a visitation of grasshoppers, and intestine trouble, are now enjoying a reasonable share of prosperity. The population in 1857 was 6522, of whom the Canadians and Scotch are chiefly agriculturists, and the half-breeds hunters, fishers, &c. Horse-breeding is extensively carried on, and the produce are in considerable demand; but the settlement

RED ROOT-RED SEA.

has very little import and export trade, the latter con- Jublah forms the entrance; its length is about 180 sisting chiefly of flour, which is purchased at a fair rate miles; extreme breadth (about lat. 29°), upwards by the Hudson's Bay Company. While the proposed of 30. The eastern arm, called the Gulf of transfer to the crown (autumn and winter of 1869- Akabah (Bahr-el-'Akabah), is entered by the Strait 1870) of the rights of the Hudson's Bay Company was of Tirân, and runs north-north-east to lat. 29° 30′ pending, the R. R. settlement was the scene of much N. Its length is upwards of 100 miles; greatest contention and violence. The hasty action of the breadth, rather more than 15. The depth of the Canadian authorities incensed the French-speaking R. S. varies considerably, but is in many places population, who, led by Louis Riel, organised a force, imprisoned their opponents (English and Scotch), seized on Fort Garry, established a provisional government, robbed the strong-box, and dictated terms to the governor of the H. B. Company to which he was obliged to submit. In July, 1870, a military force suddenly appeared in the province, and Riel, fearing capture, escaped, and thus closed the insurrection.

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RED ROOT (Ceanothus), a genus of plants of the natural order Rhamnacea, consisting of deciduous shrubs with simple alternate leaves and large red roots, whence their common name. The common RED ROOT of North America (C. Americanus), which abounds from Canada to Florida, is a shrub of 2-4 feet high, with beautiful thyrsi of numerous small white flowers. It is sometimes called New Jersey Tea, because an infusion of the dried leaves is occasionally used as tea, and was especially during the American War of Independence. The plant is also used for dyeing wool of a cinnamon colour. A strong infusion of the leaves has been found useful in aphthous affections, in the sore throat of scarlet fever, and in dysentery. -A number of species are found in different parts of North America, some of them very beautiful, especially C. azureus, a Mexican shrub, with elongated thyrsi of brilliant blue flowers. Some of the species grow very well in Britain; the Mexican ones require protection from frost in winter.

RE'DRUTH, a town of Cornwall, consists chiefly of one long street, which stands on a hill, in the centre of a famous mining district, 9 miles northwest of Falmouth. Iron foundries are in operation; but the principal product of this vast mining district is copper. In the vicinity are many mines, which are worked by large steam-engines. By railway, there is casy communication to St Ives and Falmouth Bays. Pop. (1861) 7919.

RED SANDSTONE was the term formerly applied to the combined Devonian and Permian rocks, when their relations to the Carboniferous strata were unknown. The discovery that one set of the red sandstone was below the coal, while the other was above it, caused their division into the Old Red (q. v.), or Devonian, and the New Red, or Permian (q. v.). For some time after this division, the original term Red Sandstone was retained by a few geologists to characterise the newer set of red rocks, but it is now quite given up.

very great; the deepest sounding is marked as 1054 fathoms, in lat. 22° 30′. Southward of 16°, it is comparatively shallow; but the shallowest part of the whole Sea is the Gulf of Suez, which decreases in depth from 40 or 50 fathoms at the entrance to 3 fathoms in Suez Harbour, at the northern end, where the Gulf, which is supposed in ancient times to have extended considerably further north, has apparently been filled up by the sand washed up by the strong tides, or drifted in deeper; it is, in fact, a narrow, deep ravine, with by the winds. The Gulf of Akabah is much steep and rocky sides, forming the termination of the long valley of the Arabali, running northward to the Dead Sea. The basin of the R. S. itself is the lowest portion of a deep valley lying between the highlands of Africa on the west, and the lofty plateau of the Arabian hills on the east, which for the most part a sandy and sterile tract along latter, rising at some little distance inland, leave

the sea.

The navigation of the R. S. has always been accounted difficult and dangerous, owing to islands, shoals, and coral reefs, which line the the prevalence of violent winds, and the number of shores. These coral reefs extend generally in parallel lines along the coast; they abound in all parts, but are especially frequent on the Arabian side, where the navigation is consequently very

intricate.

The coral is very beautiful, often red or reddish in colour, but more commonly white. The islands generally occur singly, but between the parallels of lat. 15° and 17°, they are found massed in two groups-the Farsan (q. v.) Islands on the eastern, and the Dhalac (q. v.) Islands on the western side. In mid-channel, south of Râs Mohammed, there is generally a width of 100 miles clear. Along this channel, the winds are constant throughout the year in one of two directions: from May to October, the north-west monsoon blows; for the rest of the year, the south-east is the prevailing wind, and the water in the northern part of the Sea is then raised to a higher level than the Mediterranean. It had been generally supposed that the level of the R. S. was more than 30 feet higher than that of the Mediterranean, but it is now known, from careful observations, that the levels of the two seas are really the same. The principal ports are, on the Arabian side, Mocha, Jeddah (the port of Mecca), and Yembo (the port of Medinah); on the west, Suez, Cosseir, Suakin, and Massowah. The origin of the name R. S. has given rise to a RED SEA, or ARABIAN GULF, an inlet of the variety of conjectures, and has never yet been Indian Ocean, in form a long and narrow gulf, satisfactorily settled. It is supposed to have been stretching north-west from the Strait of Bab-el- so called from the name Edom (Red), as the Mandeb (lat. 12° 40′ N.), by which it communicates mountains of that country are washed by the with the Gulf of Aden, to the Isthmus of Suez (lat. waters of the Gulf of Akabah; from the red and 30° N.), which parts it from the Mediterranean Sea. purple colouring of the rocks which in some parts It separates Arabia on the east from Egypt, Nubia, border it; from the red colour sometimes given to and Abyssinia on the west. Its extreme length is the waters by animalcules and sea-weed; or from over 1400 English miles; it varies greatly in the reddish tinge imparted to them in some places breadth-from about 20 miles at the Strait of Bab- by the subjacent red sandstone and reddish coral el-Mandeb, to upwards of 230 at about lat. 16° 30'. reefs. To the Hebrews, it was known as Yam At Râs (Cape) Mohammed (lat. 27° 40′ N.), the Suph, the sea of weeds or sedge. By the Greeks, sea is parted into two arms or smaller gulfs, which in the earliest times, the name R. S. was given to enclose between them the peninsula of Mount the whole of the Indian Ocean, including both the Sinai; that on the west, continuing the direction R. S. and the Persian Gulf, and not distinctively of the main body of the sea, is the Gulf of Suez to the former (which was then and afterwards (Bahr-es-Suweis), of which the Strait of Jubal or known as the Arabian Gulf), though the name, in

REDSHANK-RED SNOW.

later times, gradually became restricted in its appli- resign office, and return to Paris and London to cation. support the Turkish against the Egyptian interests. From the earliest times, the R. S. has been Recalled by the death of the sultan, and the disaster a great highway of commerce between India and of Nisib, to his old post, the foreign office, he suc the Mediterranean lands, and traversed success-ceeded, after a debate in council of three days' ively by Egyptians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, and duration, in obtaining the hattisherif of Gulhane Arabs. It is first mentioned in the Book of Exodus, (3d November 1839), a species of constitutional. on occasion of the passage of the Israelites, which charter, which, from the comparative weakness of is supposed to have taken place a little south its promoters, became a dead letter. The effects of the present town of Suez. The first recorded of his foreign diplomacy were soon apparent in the navigation of the Sea was in the time of Sesostris, humiliation of the Egyptians in Syria; but a seraglio in the 14th c. B. C. Three centuries later, Hebrew intrigue, which occasioned his dismissal, deprived and Phoenician ships traversed the R. S. on the him of the honour of concluding peace. From 1841 voyage to Ophir, from the port of Eziongeber, at to 1845, he was the Turkish representative at the the head of the Gulf of Akabah. The Gulf of French court, and though recalled to fill the post of Suez was for many centuries apparently the seat grand-vizier (28th September 1846), he found his of the Egyptian trade in this sea and to India. influence at court greatly diminished under the After the foundation of Alexandria, and during the new sultan. He was vigorously supported by Sir dynasty of the Ptolemies and the Roman dominion, Stratford Canning, the English ambassador, who the trade with India was vigorously carried on, was of the opinion that all hopes of a bright though the chief seat of traffic was moved further future to Turkey depended solely upon Redshid southward, to the towns of Berenice and Myos Pasha. He was frequently deposed, and almost Hormos, which sent out anuually large fleets to immediately recalled, according as the anti-reform India. After the establishment of the Moham-party gained or lost the ear of the sultan; but the medan empire in the 7th c., an important trade complications with Russia, which arose in 1853, with India and China seems to have been carried threw the anti-reformers (who had counselled on through the R. S.; and through it, in the period an obstinate disregard of all the Russian reprebetween the 12th and 15th centuries, the goods of sentations) into discredit, and R., more powerful the East passed to the Venetian factories in than ever, was again recalled to the direction of Alexandria, until the discovery of the route round foreign affairs. In 1854, he was again overcome by the Cape of Good Hope diverted the traffic with his political opponents, and retired from office, which India into a different channel, and put an end to he did not resume till after the peace of Paris. the commerce of the Red Sea. Since the establish- His reappointment as grand-vizier excited great ment of the so-called Overland Route to India, and hopes of further salutary reformations; but the opening of the Suez Canal, the R. S. has more than French influence at the Porte was pertinaciously regained its ancient importance as the highway of com- antagonistic, and he was twice forced to resign, and merce between Europe and the East. See SUEZ. as often recalled. At last, worn out with harassing cares and toil, he was seized with an illness, to which he specdily succumbed, at his palace of Emmirgian, 7th January 1858. Though a Turk, he was one of the most enlightened men of his time, and was well versed in foreign languages, general literature, and science.

For the classical geography of the R. S., the Geographi Græci Minores of Müller (Paris, 1855), and the Atlas appended to it may be consulted. Fuller information on the subject of the R. S., its coasts, and adjacent lands, will be found in the elder Niebuhr's Travels, and Description of Arabia; in the Travels of Salt, Burckhardt, Rüppell, and others; in Wellsted's Observations on the Coast of Arabia, &c.; in Ehrenberg's work on the Coral Islands of the R. S.; Ritter's Erdkunde, vol. ii.; and the Admiralty Chart, based on the surveys of Moresby, Carless, and others.

REDSHANK. See SANDPIPER.

REDSHID PASHA, a celebrated Turkish statesman, and long the chief of the party of progress in Turkey, was born at Constantinople about 1800. He accompanied his brother-in-law, the governor of the Morea, into Greece, and after his death, obtained the post of chief secretary in one of the government offices at Constantinople. On the outbreak of the Russian war (1828-1829), | he was charged with a mission in Bulgaria, and exerted himself effectually to protect the Christian subjects of the Porte from the fanatic rage of their Moslem neighbours; and on his return obtained from Mahmoud, who fully appreciated his character, a post in the foreign office. On the creation of resident representatives at foreign courts, R. was sent to the courts of France and Britain, and applied himself diligently to the study of the language, manners, and political constitution of these countries; but was recalled in 1837, and nominated grand-vizier. His persuasive eloquence and firmness of character greatly aided the sultan in carrying out his plans for the better centralisation of the administration, and for mercantile intercourse with foreign nations; but the old Turkish party were still too strong for him, and he was compelled to

RED SNOW. The apparent redness of snow, as seen from a distance, is often an effect of light, which adds a peculiar charm to mountain and winter landscapes, particularly in the mornings and evenings, when the rays of the sun fall most obliquely on the surface of the snow. But snow is occasionally found both in polar and alpine regions of a really red colour. This phenomenon seems to have been observed by the ancients, as a passage in Aristotle apparently refers to it; but it attracted no attention in modern times till 1760, when Saussure observed it in the Alps, and from chemical experiments concluded that the red colour was owing to the presence of some vegetable substance, which he supposed might be the pollen of a plant. The next observations on red snow were made in the arctic_expedition under Captain Ross, when it was found extending over a range of cliffs on the shore of Baffin's Bay for eight miles, and the red colour penetrating the snow in some places to a depth of 12 feet. On the return of the expedition in 1819, the colouring matter, as then existing in the melted red snow, was subjected to careful examina tion by Robert Brown and by Francis Bauer, the former most eminent botanist pronouncing it to be an unicellular plant of the order Alga, whilst the latter referred it to Uredo, a genus of Fungi, and called it U. nivalis. Baron Wrangel afterwards declared it to be a Lichen, and called it Lepraria Kermesina; but Agardh and Dr Greville of Edinburgh-the latter of whom obtained specimens from the Scottish island of Lismore on further examination, returned to the opinion of Brown, an opinion

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