CÆSAR.

On his return to Rome (67 B. C.), he married concluded two important wars, led his troops into Pompeia, a relative of Pompey, with whom he winter-quarters. was daily becoming more intimate. In 66 B. C. he

Next year (57 B. C.) occurred the Belgic war, in which C. successively routed the Suessiones, Bellovaci, Ambiani, and Nervii, who, alarmed at the progress of the Roman arms, had entered into an alliance with each other against the invaders. When the senate received C.'s official dispatches, it decreed a thanksgiving of 15 days-an honour never previously granted to any other general. During the winter and the spring following, C. stayed at Lucca; and after spending large sums of money in hospitality, and in other less praiseworthy purposes, he departed for Gaul, where the flames of war had burst out in the north-west. The Veneti, a maritime people of Brittany, were the chief instigators of the insurrection. C.'s plans were laid with consummate skill, and were crowned with the most splendid success. The Veneti were totally defeated, and most of the other Gallic tribes were either checked or subdued. C. wintered in the country of the Aulerci and Lexovii (Normandy), having, in the course of three campaigns, conquered Gaul. Next year (55 B. C.), Crassus went to Syria, and Pompey to Spain, while C.'s provincial government was prolonged for five years. He now undertook a fourth campaign against two German tribes who were about to enter Gaul. He was again successful; and, pursuing the fleeing enemy across the Rhine, spent eighteen days in plundering the district inhabited by the Sigambri. He next invaded Britain, about the autumn; but after a brief stay in the island, returned to Gaul. The Roman senate, astonished at his hardihood and his successes in regions where no Roman army had ever been before, accorded him a public thanksgiving of 20 days.. In 54 B. C., C. opened his fifth campaign by a second invasion of Britain. On his return to Gaul C. was compelled-on account of the scarcity of corn, arising from drought-to winter his army in divisions. This naturally aroused the hopes of the Gauls, who thought the time had come for recovering their independence. An insurrection broke out in the north-east of Gaul, which was at first partially successful, but was ultimately crushed. C. resolved to winter at Samarobriva (Amiens), in the vicinity of the malcontents. In 53 B. C., C. commenced his sixth campaign. It was chiefly occupied in crushing a second insurrection of the Gauls. C. now returned to Northern Italy, that he might be able to communicate more easily and securely with his friends at Rome. That city was gradually becoming more anarchic; the evils of weak government more apparent; the hour for decisive action seemed to be approaching, and doubt. less C.'s heart beat with expectation of the mighty future, when all at once the plot that Fate was

was elected to the curule ædileship, and lavished vast sums of money on games and public buildings, by which he increased his already great popularity. For the next few years, C. is found steadily skirmishing on the popular side. In 63 B. C. he was elected pontifex maximus, and shortly after prætor. During the same year occurred the famous debate on the Cataline conspiracy, in which the aristocratic party vainly endeavoured to persuade the consul, Cicero, to include C. in the list of conspirators. In 62 B. C., Pompey returned from the East, and disbanded his army. Next year C. obtained the province of Hispania Ulterior. His career in Spain was brilliant and decisive. On his return, he was elected consul, along with M. Calpurnius Bibulus. Shortly before the passing of the agrarian law (59 B.C), C., with rare tact and sagacity, had reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome, who were then at variance, Pompey and Crassus, and had formed an alliance with them, known in history as the First Triumvirate. Both of these distinguished men aided C. in carrying his agrarian law; and to strengthen still further the union which had been formed, C. gave Pompey his daughter, Julia, in marriage, though she had been promised to M. Brutus; while he himself also married Calpurnia, daughter of L. Fiso, his successor in the consulship. On the expiry of his term of office, he obtained for himself, by the popular vote, the province of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum for five years, to which the senate added -to prevent the popular assembly from doing sothe province of Gallia Transalpina. Nothing could have been more favourable for C.'s aims. He had now an opportunity of developing his extraordinary military genius, and of gathering round him an army of veterans, whom perpetual victory should inspire with thorough soldierly fidelity and devotion to his person. This was the very thing he wanted to give him a reputation equal to that of his coad-weaving in his favour, appeared to be completely jutors, Pompey and Crassus, whom, in genius, he far surpassed. Leaving, therefore, the political factions at Rome to exhaust themselves in petty strifes, C., in 58 B.C., after the banishment of Cicero, repaired to his provinces, and during the next nine years, conducted those splendid campaigns in Gaul, by which, had he done nothing else, he would have 'built himself an everlasting name.. C.'s first campaign was against the Helvetii, whom he totally defeated near Bibracte (Autun). Out of 368,000 only 110,000 remained. These were commanded by C. to return home, and cultivate their lands. The eyes of the Gauls were now turned upon the new conqueror. His help was solicited, among others, by Divitiacus, an Eduan chief. This involved C. in a second war with a German prince, named Ariovistus, who was utterly overthrown; and now C., having in the course of one campaign successfully

marred by a tremendous rebellion over the whole of Gaul, headed by a young warrior named Vercingetorix. It was in the dead of winter when the news came to C., who instantly saw that, at all hazards, he must preserve his fame and his army. Leaving, therefore, Pompey to succeed at Rome, he hurried to meet the insurgent hordes. His great difficulty was to collect his scattered legions. First crossing, with some Cisalpine and provincial troops, the mountains of Auvergne, though they lay six feet deep in snow, he suddenly appeared among the Arverni, who, terrified at his unexpected approach, sent for their chief, Vercingetorix, to come to their assistance. This was what C. wished. After some wonderful exhibitions of military skill, and numer ous successes, Vercingetorix was shut up in Alesia (Alise in Burgundy) with all his infantry. C. besieged him, and though harassed by nearly 300,000.

CÆSAR.

Gauls without, who attempted, but in vain, to break | retreated to Thessaly, followed by his exulting through the well-defended Roman lines, forced enemies. A second battle ensued on the plains of Vercingetorix to capitulate. Many of the tribes now Pharsalia, 9th August, 48 B. C. Pompey's army was hastened to submit to C., who prudently deter- utterly routed; Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where mined to winter among the vanquished. The senate, he was murdered. See POMPEY. of course, voted him another public thanksgiving. Next year (51 B. C.), C. proceeded to quell the tribes who still held out. This he successfully accomplished, and having in addition reduced the whole of Aquitania, passed the winter of his eighth campaign at Nemetocenna, in Belgium, where he spent the time both in a magnanimous and politic manner. The Gallic princes were courteously and generously treated; the common people were spared the imposition of further taxes, and everything was done to render it possible for him to visit Italy with safety in the spring. This he did, and took up his residence at Ravenna, where he was informed of everything that was going on by the tribune C. Curio. There can be no doubt that at this moment he was the most popular man in the state, while his soldiery were devoted to him with a loyalty as enthusiastic as that which Bonaparte inspired when fresh from his Italian victories.

Meanwhile, Pompey, whose vanity could not endure the greatness of C., had been gradually veering round again to the aristocracy, whose dread of the new conqueror was hourly increasing. After much futile diplomatic finessing on all sides, the senate carried a motion that C. should disband his army by a certain day; and that if he did not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state.' The tribunes, Mark Antony and Q. Cassius put their veto on this motion; but they were violently driven out of the senate-chamber, and fearing for their lives, they fled to C.'s camp. The senate, in the madness of their terror, now declared war, and intrusted the conduct of it to Pompey, whose pride in the invincibility of his military prowess hindered him from taking the necessary measures for the defence of the state. He fancied that his name would bring thousands to his standard, and he was even led to believe that C.'s troops were willing to desert their general: the result of which delusion was, that when hostilities formally commenced, he had hardly any soldiers except two legions which had recently been in the service of his rival. C., on the other hand, perceiving that the time for decisive action had at length come, harangued his victorious troops, who were willing to follow him anywhere; crossed the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his province from Italy Proper), and moved swiftly, amid the acclamations of the people, towards Rome. Pompey fled to Brundusium, pursued by C., but contrived to reach Greece in safety, 17th March, 49 B. C. The Italian cities had everywhere gladly opened their gates to the conqueror as a deliverer. In three months, C. was master of all Italy.

No sooner had the news reached Rome, than C. was again appointed dictator for a year, and consul for five years. He was invested with tribunicial power for life, and with the right of holding all the magistricial comitia except those for the election of the plebeian tribunes. He did not, however, return to Rome after the battle of Pharsalia, but went to Egypt, then in a distracted condition on account of the disputes regarding the succession. Out of love for Cleopatra (who subsequently bore him a son), he entered upon the 'Alexandrine War,' in which he was successful, and which he brought to a close in March 47 B. C. He next overthrew a son of Mithridates, near Zela, in Pontus, August 2 of the same year, and arrived in Rome in September. He was once more appointed dictator, and the property of Pompey was confiscated and sold. Before the close of the year, he had set out for Africa, where his campaign against the Pompeian generals, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thapsus, 6th April, 46 B. C. Cato committed suicide at Utica, and with such irresistible celerity was the work of subjugation carried on, that by the end of the summer, C. was again in Rome. Now occurred that display of noble and wise generosity which proves C. to have been possessed of a great magnanimous nature. He was not a man that could stoop to the vulgar atrocities of Marius or Sulla, and so he majestically declared that henceforth he had no enemies, and that he would make no difference between Pompeians and Cæsarians. His victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, were celebrated by four great triumphs, during which the whole Roman populace was feasted and fêted by the magnificent liberality of the dictator.

He now proceeded to check, by wholesome enactments, as far as in him lay, the social evils which had long flourished in the city. During the year 46 B. C., also, he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had been greatly abused by the pontifical college for political purposes. After quelling an insurrection which now broke out in Spain, where Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had collected an army, he received the title of 'Father of his Country,' and also of imperator, was made dictator and præfectus morum for life, consul for 10 years; his person was declared sacred, and even divine; he obtained a body-guard of knights and senators; his statue was placed in the temples; his portrait was struck on coins; the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honour; and on all public occasions he was C. next subdued Pompey's legates in Spain, who permitted to wear the triumphal robe. He now were at the head of considerable forces. On his proposed to make a digest of the whole Roman return, he took Massilia, where he learned that he law for public use, to found libraries for the same had been appointed dictator of the republic-a purpose, to drain the Pontine Marshes, to enlarge function which at this time he retained only for the harbour of Ostia, to dig a canal through the 11 days, but these were honourably distinguished Isthmus of Corinth, and to quell the inroads of by the passing of several humane enactments. the barbarians on the eastern frontiers; but in the Pompey, now thoroughly alive to the magnitude midst of these vast designs he was cut off by of his danger, had gathered in Egypt, Greece, and assassination on the Ides (15th) of March, 44 B. C. the East, a powerful army, while his fleet swept The details of this crime-the greatest disaster the sea. C., however, crossing the Adriatic at that could have befallen the Roman world, as an unexpected season, made a rush for Dyrrha- subsequent events showed-are too familiar to chium, where Pompey's stores were; but was never- require narration. It is sufficient to say that, of the theless outstripped by his opponent. Pompey sixty aristocrats who were in the conspiracy, many intrenched his army on some high ground near had partaken of C.'s generosity, and all of his the city, where he was besieged by C. The first clemency. A few, like Brutus, out of a weak and encounter was favourable to Pompey, who drove formal conscientiousness, based on theory, rather back C.'s legions with much loss. The latter now than insight, were probably offended by C.'s desire

CÆSAREA—CAGAYAN SOOLOO.

CÆSA'REAN OPERATION (cado-casus) has, from very ancient times, been the popular name for Hysterotomy (hystera, uterus; tome, section). Pliny distinctly alludes to it in his Natural History (lib. vii. cap. ix.), saying that Cæsar was so called from CAGAYA'N SOOLOO', an island of the Asiatic being taken by excision out of the womb of his Archipelago, in lat. 6° 58′ N., and long. 118° 28′ E. mother, and that such persons were called Casones It is about 20 miles in circumference, well wooded |

CAGLIARI-CAGLIOSTRO.

and elevated.—Cagayan is also the name of a province on the island of Luzon, one of the Philippines.

CA'GLIARI, the capital of the island of Sardinia, situated on the side of a hill, on the northeast shore of a spacious bay, and on the south coast of the island, in lat. 39°‍13′ N., long. 9° 8′ E. It has a spacious and safe harbour, defended by several forts, and is the emporium of all the trade of the island. The town contains many public buildings and churches, some of which are said to be very splendid; but its streets, for the most part, are very narrow, steep, and dirty. C. has a population of about 31,000. It has also a dockyard, and a good road has lately been constructed from C. to Sassari, the second city in the island, and to some of the more considerable places. Steamers ply very frequently between C. and Genoa; and it is now united to the continent of Europe by a line of electric telegraph.

first in some parts of Greece, Egypt, and Asia. At Rome, his swart, squat figure first becomes and Campo authentically visible in the Corso Vaccino. He lodges at the sign of the Sun in the Rotunda, and sells etchings there,' very hard up at this time. In Venice, the bull-necked forger contrived to marry a very pretty woman named Lorenza Feliciana, who became a skilful accomplice in his schemes, and captivated many admirers, while C. picked their pockets. C. now made the tour of Italy with great success as a physician, philosopher, alchemist, free-mason, and necromancer! Next, he extended his victorious career through some parts of Germany, and especially carried on a lively business in his 'elixir of immortal youth,' which became very popular among the ladies. By virtue of this fine medicine, the count assured his patients that he had already attained his 150th year, while his young and charming wife often talked affectionately of her son as 'a commander in the Dutch CAGLIARI, PAOLO, best known as Paolo navy.' Through Courland, the count and his Veronese, an Italian painter of great eminence, was accomplice advanced triumphantly to the court of born at Verona in 1532. He first studied under St. Petersburg, where he seems to have first made his uncle, Antonio Badile, a respectable artist, and a failure; for the Empress Catharine, aided by her afterwards settled in Venice, where he rapidly Scotch physician, Rogerson, a keen-witted native of acquired both wealth and reputation. He had Annandale, who sceptically examined his famous for contemporaries both Titian and Tintoretto, 'Spagiric food,' and pronounced it unfit for a and was held in equal admiration with these dog,' penetrated his real character, and made him famous painters. The church of San Sebastiano, in the subject of a comedy. C. soon found it conveVenice, contains many of his productions, which are nient to vanish. We next find him at Warsaw, reckoned the most important of his earlier period discoursing on his pet Egyptian masonry, medical i. e., the period before he visited Rome, when he philosophy, and the ignorance of doctors, but he first became acquainted with the master-pieces of has the misfortune to be unmasked by a certain Raphael and Michael Angelo. The influence of Count M. This, however, had little effect on the the Roman school on his style was so happy, that, stupid credulity of C.'s dupes-belonging, it must be on his return, he received the honour of knighthood remembered, to the upper classes, who, in that age, from the Doge. He died 19th April 1588. C. is according to Carlyle, were at once sensual, infidel, remarkable for the fertility of his imagination. His and superstitious- so that they persisted for a time design is generally noble, his composition rich, and in distending his pockets with ducats and diahis execution truthful. In the invention of details, monds,' which, however, his lavish dissipation soon especially, he is inexhaustible, and often overloads scattered to the winds-for this prophet of a new his pictures with ornament. One peculiarity of his physical and moral regeneration, and inventor of works is the frequent introduction of splendid an invaluable pentagon for abolishing original sin,' architectural backgrounds, which, however, were was a desperate gambler. In 1780, he went to generally painted by his brother Benedetto. The Strasburg; and soon afterwards we find him in most celebrated of his productions is the Marriage Paris, still founding lodges of Egyptian freeFeast at Cana of Galilee,' now in the Louvre at masons,' holding nocturnal meetings for calling Paris. It is 20 feet high, and 30 in length, and spirits from the vasty deep,' &c., and scandalously contains 130 figures. Besides these may be men- simulating the character and deeds of a philantioned The Calling of St. Andrew to the Apostle-thropist. From Paris he came over to England, ship,''The The Feast of Simon,' and the Presentation where he was cordially received by the followers of the Family of Darius to Alexander.' of Swedenborg. On his return to Paris (1785), he CAGLIOSTRO, COUNT ALESSANDRO DI, a noto- became distinguished at court, was intimate with the rious impostor, who, in the latter part of the 18th weak and credulous Cardinal Rohan, and played a c., travelled through Europe, and whose adventures prominent part in the affair of the Diamond Neckafford considerable insight into the social charac- lace (q. v.). This lodged him in the Bastille; but teristics of his times. He was born at Palermo, of he cleared himself by a statement which gained poor parentage, June 2, 1743, and his true name credit, and, after being liberated, carried on his was GIUSEPPE BALSAMO. Carlyle's picture of him adventures once more in England, but feebly, the when a boy-brass-faced, vociferous, voracious sunshine of success now obviously growing dim: is probably accurate, and already prophesies the in short, the count, in gloom and foreboding, bold and boisterous quack. When 13 years old, disappeared from the island. But the market in he ran away from the seminary of St. Roch, and Germany, too, was closed, a general distrust having was afterwards sent to a monastery at Cartagiore. been excited by the revelations of one of the count's Here he became assistant to the apothecary of the dupes. Elsewhere, also, these began to fail him. monastery, and picked up that scanty knowledge‘At Aix, in Savoy, there are baths, but no gudgeons of chemistry and medicine, which was afterwards in them;' at Turin, he is ordered off by the king; found quite sufficient to impose upon so many respectable individuals. His conduct in the monastery was in keeping with his character, but finding it too contracted a sphere for the development of his ambitious genius, he left it, or was ejected, and for a time led the loosest life' in Palermo. When 26 years old, he found it highly advisable to leave his native place. In company with a certain sage named Althotas, C. is vaguely represented as travelling

a similar fate befalls him at Roveredo; at Trent, we catch a glimpse of him, 'painting a new hieroglyphic screen,' which, however, attracts no more the gaping crowd; lower still, 'he pawns diamond buckles;' finally, his wayworn wife-in whom, perhaps, because of her womanhood, the enormous lie and quackery first breaks up-longs to be in Rome by her mother's hearth, by her mother's grave, where so much as the shadow of refuge awaits her.' In

CAGNOLA-CAILLIE.
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May 1789, he entered the city; on the 29th Decem- miles below the town. Cahir Castle, an ancient ber, the Holy Inquisition detected him founding irregular Norman structure of considerable extent, some feeble ghost of an Egyptian lodge.' He is situated on a rock on the left bank of the Suir. was imprisoned, and condemned to death for free- It was taken by the Earl of Essex in 1599, and masonry. His sentence was commuted to imprison- by Cromwell in 1650. by Cromwell in 1650. It has been lately restored. ment for life in the fortress San Leon, where, in C. has extensive flour-mills and a population of spite of his 'elixir of immortal youth,' he died, 1795, 3719. aged 52 years. His wife ended her days in a convent. His Mémoires Authentiques, posthumously circulated in Paris, were not authentic.-See Carlyle's Miscellaneous Essays, art. Count Cagliostro.

CAGNOLA, LUIGI MARCHESE, a distinguished Italian architect, was born at Milan in 1762-died 1833. Belonging to an ancient and wealthy family, he could afford to follow the bent of his own inclination, and devoted himself earnestly to the study of architecture. His master-works are two triumphal arches. The first is the famous Arco della Pace, in Milan, commenced in 1807, but not finished until 1838. It is constructed of white marble, and, with the exception of the Arc de l'Etoile, in Paris, is both the largest and noblest structure of the kind in Europe, reaching a height of 78 feet. On the top of the arch is a bronze figure of Peace, in a car drawn by six horses, while the sides are richly adorned with innumerable bas-reliefs. The second, forming the Porta di Marenga, or Porta Ticinense, is also a work of great beauty, and is much admired. Besides these may be mentioned the Campanile (Bell-tower) at Urgnano, in the Bergamese.

CAHORS (anciently, Divona), a town in the department of Lot, France, is situated on a small rocky peninsula, formed by a bend of the river Lot -here crossed by three bridges-about 60 miles north of Toulouse. The streets of C. are steep and narrow, and present many specimens of antique architecture. It has a fine cathedral, and several Roman remains, including those of a magnificent aqueduct. There is an obelisk to Fénélon, who was a student at the university here. The town was taken and pillaged by Henri of Navarre in 1580. It has manufactures of cotton-yarn, woollens, leather, paper, glass, &c.; the district produces wine in considerable quantities. Population, exclusive of government officials, about 10,000.

CAICOS, or CAY'OS, or KEYS, a term applied to numberless rocky islets of the West Indies, and that generally with reference to some more considerable island in the neighbourhood. Thus, to take the Bahamas as an instance, there are the Keys of Providence, of Eleuthera, of Abaco, &c. But more specifically the name is often appropriated to the more southerly members of the group just mentioned-North, West, East, Grand, and other Keys, together covering about 450 square miles, and containing about 3000 inhabitants. They lie between 21° and 22° N. lat., having been transferred, with a local president, from the government of Bahama to that of Jamaica. The revenue is about £8000. In 1852, the imports were valued at £29,867, and the exports (consisting chiefly of salt) at £24,826.

CAGOTS is the name given to a tribe of men, of manners and customs akin to those of the gipsies, who are found scattered through various parts of Bearn and Gascony, in France. They are usually thought to be the descendants of the Visigoths, who remained in France after their defeat by Clovis, in the 5th century. Until the French Revolution of 1790, they received even worse treatment than that which generally falls to the lot of the remnants of conquered races. They were forced to wear a peculiar dress, were forbidden to practise all but the most menial trades, and were obliged to live isolated, either in separate villages or in separate quarters of the towns. So complete was their estrangement from the other inhabitants, that they were forced to enter the churches by doors especially set apart for them. Since the Revolution, they have been placed, as regards the law, on an equal footing with other citizens, but socially they are still regarded as a degraded race. Their language has been, so far back as is known, a corrupt dialect of that spoken in the surrounding country; but their blue eyes, fair hair, and fair complexion, mark them out as ethnologically distinct, and speak to a Teutonic origin. From a great liability to the diseases afflicting cretins, probably caused by their exposed manner of life and insufficient nourishment, they were at one time erroneously thought to belong to that unfortunate class. Tribes, whose history and present condition greatly resemble those of the C., are to be found in Brittany, where they receive the name of noted for his journey to Timbuktu, was born 19th CAILLIÉ, RENÉ or AUGUSTE, a French traveller, Caqueux; and in Poitou, Maine, and Anjou, where they receive the name of Colliberts. See Michel's September 1799, at Mauzé, in the department of Histoire des Races Maudites de la France et de l'Es-in trading with the natives, he learned, about 1826, Deux-Sèvres. Having gone to Senegal, and engaged pagne (History of Outcast Races in France and Spain),

Par. 1847.

CAGSA'NA, a town near the southern extremity of the island of Luzon, Philippines, with a. population of 12,755.

CA'HIR, a town in the county of Tipperary, Ireland, on the Suir, beautifully situated at the east end of a valley between the Galtees and Knockmeledown Mountains, 8 miles north-west of Clonmel. In the town is the seat of the Earl of Glengall, with a park which extends along the river for two

CAIFA, or HAIFA, a seaport on the coast of Syria, situated exactly opposite Acre, upon a spur of Mount Carmel, and on the south side of a wide semicircular bay, four miles across. It is the ancient Hefa, or Sycaminopolis. It covers but a small space of ground, and contains no edifice of any note except a few minarets. The houses are built of rough unhewn sandstone, plastered over with lime-the roofs flat. Pop. about 2000-Moslems, Christians, and Jews. C., having a better anchorage than Acre, is fast eclipsing that city as a port, and within the last few years almost all the trade of Acre has been transferred to it. Consular agents from England, France, &c., have lately been established at C.; and among other late improvements are a coffee-house and billiard-room, things rare in Syria. Several cargoes of barley, wheat, and sesame seed are yearly shipped at C., and exported to Great Britain and France. C. is surrounded by beautiful gardens of palm, olive, orange, citron, fig, mulberry, and pomegranate trees.

that the Geographical Society of Paris had offered a premium of 10,000 francs to the first traveller who should reach Timbuktu. Provided with a stock of goods for barter, C. started from Sierra Leone, March 22, 1827, and after some delay caused by illness, he reached the mysterious city in April 1828, where he remained 14 days. On leaving Timbuktu, he accompanied a caravan across the Sahara Desert, reaching the coast at Tangier. After hearing and examining his statements, the Society awarded to him the offered prize, with a pension of