his god, as the symbol of the worship he has paid him, which he wears all the day long. As he walks about, you may hear him muttering the names and sounding the praises of his gods. In greeting a friend, he accosts him in the name of a deity. In a letter on business, or on any other matter, the first word he invariably writes is the name of a god. Should he propose an engagement of importance, he first enquires the pleasure of the idol, and a lucky day for observing it. At his birth, his horoscope is cast; when he is ill, the propitiated; when he is bereaved, the idol must be remembered; at his death, his funeral rites are performed in the name of one or more deities." 1 gods must be The Abbé Dubois bears similar testimony to the influence of religious ideas over the Hindu mind. He says, "we hardly find any of their civil observances that are not combined with some religious mixture, either as the motive or the object. Everything, in short, is blended with superstition; whether it be the manner of salutation, the mode of dress, the shape and colour of the clothes, the placing of their trinkets and other ornaments, the manner of erecting their houses and other buildings, the side where the fireplace is to stand, or where the household utensils; and even the rules of civility and politeness which they are called on to observe." He adds, "I have been closely viewing their customs and observances for more than fifteen years, and I have scarcely remarked any one, however simple or indifferent, or, I may add, indecent, that had not something religious either for its motive or end.” 2 Elsewhere the same writer observes that buildings for religious purposes are probably more numerous in India than 66 1 "The Sacred City of the Hindus" (1868), p. 44. See also Mill's History of British India," vol. i. p. 329. 2.66 Description of the People of India,” p. 16. in any other country, and he states that it has become proverbial among the Hindus that if a man lives in a place where there is no temple some misfortune is sure sooner or later to happen to him.1 A recent writer, himself a Hindu, says that "the Hindus walk and sit religiously, eat and drink religiously, work and sleep religiously, their social organism is interwoven with their religion.” " 2 Such being the character of the Hindus it is hopeless to expect to understand their moral ideas without first knowing something of the teaching which has moulded their religious beliefs. That teaching is not to be found in the Vedas, nor have even the Puranas exercised so great an influence over the life and manners of the people as the ordinances ascribed to the mythical Menu, which, notwithstanding the minute moral directions they contain, are essentially religious in their aim. What then is the teaching of the great Hindu lawgiver? The Code of Menu, although some of its texts are now considered obsolete, and as intended only for the three first ages of the world, are supposed to have been derived from a divine source, and its last clause expressly declares that 3 every twice-born man, who, attentively reading this Mánava Sástra promulgated by Bhriga, shall become habitually virtuous, will attain the beatitude which he seeks." It is important to notice, however, in the first place, that the future happiness attainable in the mode described by Bhriga,* is promised only to the "twice-born.” 1 "Description of the People of India," p. 393. 2 Lectures and Tracts, by Keshub Chunder Sen (1870), p. 20. For a remarkable account of the popular religion of the Hindus, see an article by Mr A. C. Lyall in the "Fortnightly Review" for 1872, p. 121, seq. 3 See General Note to the "Institutes of Hindu Law," or "The Ordinances of Menu," translated by Sir Wm. Jones (Works, vol. iii.). 4 Menu would appear to be merely a personification of the divine understanding. There is no ground for supposing him to have had any real existence. See "The Institutes," loc. cit., p. 70. 2 It is true that even a Sudra may gain "exaltation in this world and in the next," by imitating the practice of good men (in the household sacraments), and that he may be able to impart "pure knowledge." 1 But elsewhere it is said that "servile attendance on Brahmans learned in the Veda, chiefly on such as keep house and are famed for virtue, is of itself the highest duty of a Sudra, and leads him to future beatitude; pure (in body and mind), humbly serving the three higher classes, mild in speech, never arrogant, ever seeking refuge in Brahmans, probably he may attain the most eminent class (in another transmigration). In another place it is said that "attendance on Brahmans is pronounced the best work of a Sudra; whatever else he may perform will comparatively avail him nothing."3 Nor is this inconsistent with the fact that the same moral duties are assigned to the Sudras as to the three other classes.* For whatever his virtues, the Sudra cannot raise himself to an equality to those above him. The laws of Menu lay down expressly that "Brahma himself, having compared a Sudra, who performs the duties of the twice-born, with a twiceborn man, who does the acts of a Sudra, said: 'Those two are neither equal nor unequal,' (that is, they are neither equal in rank, nor unequal in bad conduct)," " Thus the best Sudra is merely on an equality with the worst Brahman, who through his misconduct sinks to a level with the Sudra. Practically therefore the moral 6 1 "Institutes," ch. x., v. 127, 128; ch. ii., v. 238. 3 Do., ch. x., v. 123. 6 The Brahman, until investiture with the sacred thread, is declared by Bhriga to be on a level with a Sudra (ii. 172), that is, morally, not socially. The servitude of the Sudra was not a state of slavery, even when the laws of Menu were compiled (viii. 414). When not engaged in waiting on the "twice-born," he was to subsist by handicraft, chiefly by mechanical occupations, such as joinery and masonry, or the practical arts, such as painting and writing (x. 99, rules laid down in the laws of Menu are for the guidance of the three higher classes or castes. The Sudra may hope through his good conduct to rise to the ranks of the twice-born in some future birth, but until then his duty consists in obedience to the commands of his superiors rather than in the practice of virtue. In what consists then the virtue required of the members of the three higher classes? Each of the four ages which, according to Hindu philosophy, have succeeded each other since the birth of mankind, has been distinguished by its special virtue. During the Krita age it was devotion, in the Treta age it was divine knowledge, in the Divapara, the chief duty attended to was sacrifice, and in the Kali age, which is the present one, liberality alone.1 The earliest is considered the purest, and the highest attainment of virtue in each of the subsequent ones must be that by which it is distinguished. And it is indeed affirmed that "all the bliss of deities and of men is declared by sages, who discern the sense of the Veda, to have in devotion its cause, in devotion its continuance, in devotion its fulness." The influence of this principle is great, seeing that not only are sinners in the highest degree absolved from guilt "by austere devotion well practised; but even souls which animate worms and insects, serpents, moths, beasts, birds, and vegetables, attain heaven by its power. It is said to equal the performance of all duties, and in fact it becomes the perfect fulfilment of duty, as it is divine knowledge in a Brahman; defence of the people in a Kshatriya; the business of trade and agriculture in a Vaisya; dutiful service, in a Sudra.2 Elsewhere devotion and sacred 100); but he is to restrict himself to the acts of his class (x. 96, 97). As to the social condition of the Sudra, see Wilson, loc. cit., vol. i. p. 194, note. 1 66 2 Do., ch. xi., v. 235, seq. knowledge are classed together as of equal value as means for attaining final beatitude.1 "2 Divine knowledge was the distinctive virtue of the Treta age, and great importance is attached to it by the Laws of Menu. That knowledge is to be sought in the Veda, which teaches everything necessary for the prosperity of man. This is not the highest science, however. In answer to the question, whether there is no single act held more powerful than the rest in leading men to beatitude, Bhriga declared that the chief duty was to acquire a knowledge of one supreme God: "that is the most exalted of all sciences, because it ensures immortality." This is intended when it is said that "he who completely knows the sense of the Veda Sastra, while he remains in any one of the four orders, approaches the divine nature, even though he sojourn in this low world." It must not be supposed, however, that the mere reading of the Veda is sufficient. A man may know the three Vedas, and yet if he governs not his passions and disobeys the ceremonial requirements, he is inferior to the man who, while completely governing his passions, knows only the gáyátrí. In another place Bhriga affirms that in the knowledge and adoration of one God. are comprised all the rules of good conduct before enforced; divine knowledge, like devotion, being thus 1 "Institutes," ch. xii., v. 104. For the requirements of the austere devotion of the third and fourth orders of Brahmans, see the "Institutes," ch. vi. In v. 81, it is said of the anchorite, “having gradually abandoned all earthly attachments, and indifferent to all pairs of opposite things (as honour and dishonour, and the like), he remains absorbed in the divine essence." 2 See ch. xii., v. 85 seq., as to the nature of the Veda. 3 Menu, ch. xii., v. 102. 4 Do., ch. ii., v. 118. As to the gáyátrí, see supra, p. 150. This sacred verse is thus translated by Mr Colebrook : "Let us meditate on the adorable light of the Divine Ruler; may it guide our intellects!" 5 Menu, ch. xii., v. 87. |