ness, are declared to belong to the dark quality. In another verse, it is said that the chief object of the lastnamed quality is pleasure, and of the passionate quality, worldly prosperity, while the chief object of the good quality is virtue.1 1 We have already seen what the "virtue" required of a Brahman includes, but it may be advisable to see further what qualities are specifically commended or condemned. Justice occupies an important place. The Brahman is born to promote it, and he who violates it is considered by the gods as a slayer of the bull Vrisha, which represents the divine form of justice.2 Reverence is strongly inculcated. Wealth, kindred, age, moral conduct, and divine knowledge, are said to entitle men to respect. Constant reverence for the aged will ensure life, knowledge, fame, and strength; while as to a father, mother, and spiritual preceptor, it is declared that "all duties are completely performed by that man by whom those three are completely honoured." Hospitality, at least to Brahmans, is an important virtue, and numerous rules are laid down for its observance. It is one phase of the charity which Brahmans are privileged to receive, and the bestowal of which is attended with great reward. "An oblation in the mouth (or hand) of a Brahman is far better than offerings to holy fire, it never drops, it never dries, it is never consumed."5 Kindness to animals is made a part of moral duty, and the prohibition to eat their flesh is based on the injury which they sustain in the loss of life. The actions forbidden are those-such as theft, assault, murder, and adultery—which are re 6 1 Menu, ch. xii., v. 30 seq. 38. 3 Do., ch. ii., v. 121, 136, 234. 5 Do., ch. vii., v. 84, and see 134 seq. 4 2 Do., ch. i., v. 98; viii. 16. 4 Do., ch. iii., v. 72, 99 seq. 6 Do., ch, v., v. 43 seq. Cattle are directed to be slain at sacrifices, and they are said to have been created for that purpose. Do., ch. v., v. 39 seq. ferred to in every criminal code. Perjury by a Brahman is to be punished by banishment, and by any of the other classes by fine and banishment. Future punishment, moreover, is threatened for those who give false testimony.1 Gaming of every kind is strictly prohibited.2 Sensuality is strongly condemned, as destroying all the benefits to be derived from liberality, sacrifices, or pious austerities.3 Affection between husband and wife is enforced, and the supreme law of marriage is declared to be: "Let mutual fidelity continue until death." Before marriage, however, chastity, on the part of man at least, would seem not to be absolutely required, as it is said: "In lawfully tasting meat, in drinking fermented liquor, in caressing women, there is no turpitude; for such enjoyments men are naturally prone; but a virtuous abstinence from them produces a signal compensation.' 4 "5 The rules of conduct thus laid down would seem to leave little to amend in the moral teaching of Menu. It may be doubted, however, whether the compiler of the Institutes had any very clear notion as to the proper basis of moral conduct. That which is sanctified by long usage is right, and the usage must be ascertained either from the Veda or from the teaching of the Brahman.c It is true that the moral laws laid down are, on the whole, of a high order, and in one place, at least, it is said that the knowledge of what is right should be a sufficient incentive to ensure obedience to them. But the value of this teaching is lessened when we consider that the performance of sinful actions could be expiated by penance, and that many of the actions which were treated as extremely sinful possess no real moral element. 1 Menu, ch. viii., v. 81 seq., 292 seq. 3 Do., ch. ii., v. 97, 118. 5 Do., ch. v., v. 56. 7 Do., ch. v., v. 13. 7 2 Do., ch. ix., v. 221. As to the former point, it is believed by the Hindus that the stupid, dumb, blind, deaf, and deformed, are persons who have committed bad actions in a preceding state of existence, which have not been expiated by penance.1 The crimes in the highest degree are declared by the Institutes to be killing a Brahman, drinking forbidden liquor, stealing gold from a priest, adultery with the wife of a father (natural or spiritual), and associating with such as commit those offences.2 The expiatory penances for these actions, when openly committed, are very severe, but it is far otherwise when the offences are secret ones. Thus it is said: "Sixteen suppressions of the breath (while the holiest of texts is repeated), with the three mighty words and the triliteral syllable, continued each day for a month, absolve even the slayer of a Brahman from his hidden faults. Even a drinker of spirituous liquors is absolved by repeating each day the text apa used by the sage Cautsa, or that beginning with preti used by Vasisht'ha, or that called mahitra, or that of which the first word is suddha vatyah. By repeating (each day for a month) the text asya vamiya, or the hymn Sivasancalpa, the stealer of gold from a priest becomes instantly pure. He who has violated the bed of his preceptor is cleared (from secret faults) by repeating (sixteen times a-day) the text havishyantiya, or that beginning with na tamanhah, or by revolving in his mind the sixteen holy verses called Paurusha." It is added, that "the man who desires to expiate his hidden sins, great and small, must repeat (once a-day) for a year the text ava, or the text yatcinchida Though he have committed many secret sins, he shall 1 Menu, ch. xi., v. 48 seq. These persons are among those debarred from sharing in an inheritance. See Halhed's "Gentoo Code," p. 73. 2 The commentator excepts "incest" in a direct line, and some others. Menu, ch. xi., v. 55. 3 See do. 73 seq. " 1 be purified by repeating for a month the text Somarandra, or the three texts aryamna, while he bathes in a sacred stream." A twice-born man, or member of the three superior classes, "shall be released from all deadly sins if he fasts three days, with his members mortified, and twice a-day plunge into water, thrice repeating the text aghamarshana. As the sacrifice of a horse, the king of sacrifices, removes all sins, thus the text aghamarshana destroys all offences." The mere repetition of certain mantras and brahmanas will cleanse from every possible taint, it being declared that "a priest, who should retain in his memory the whole Rigveda, would be absolved from guilt even if he had slain the inhabitants of the three worlds, and had eaten meat from the foulest hands." 2 While crimes of the greatest magnitude are so easily atoned for, many actions, which in themselves are perfectly harmless, are treated as most serious moral offences. Thus drinking forbidden liquor is classed as an equal offence with killing a Brahman, while eating things prohibited or unfit to be tasted, is said to be a crime nearly equal to drinking spirits. Slaying a bull or cow, sacrificing what ought not to be sacrificed, marriage of a younger brother before the elder, working in mines of any sort, engaging in great mechanical works, cutting down green trees for firewood, are all classed, together with adultery, desertion of a parent or son, and stealing anything besides gold, as crimes in the third degree. Certain actions which are not considered actual crimes are nevertheless attended with penal consequences. Such is the case with "unnatural practices 3 1 Menu, v. 248 seq. 2 Do., v. 262, 263. It would seem that these sing were looked upon as equally heinous. 3 There is no mention of a daughter. with a male,” which, with giving pain to a Brahman, smelling at any spirituous liquor or anything extremely fetid and unfit to be smelt, and cheating, cause a loss of caste. Killing an ass, a horse, a camel, a deer, an elephant, a goat, a sheep, a fish, a snake, or a buffalo, is an offence which degrades a person to a mixed tribe. Accepting presents from despicable men, illegal traffic, attendance on a Sudra master, and speaking falsehood, are causes of exclusion from social repasts. Finally, killing an insect, a worm, or a bird, eating what has been carried in the same basket with spirituous liquor, stealing fruit, wood, or flowers, and great perturbation of mind on trifling occasions, are offences which cause defilement.1 2 Notwithstanding much that is excellent in its requirements, the moral system of Menu is evidently very imperfect, and although it is based on a principle which may be traced in the morality of Mazdaism and Christianity, yet it is undoubtedly at an earlier stage of development. The drinking of intoxicating liquor is said to be equally criminal whether the spirit is distilled from the refuse of rice, or the dregs of sugar, or the flowers of the Madhúca, and the wilful partaking of it requires, for expiation, the penance of either drinking more spirit in flame to severely burn the body, or of drinking, boiling hot, one of certain fluids, so as to cause death. The intoxicating liquor operates by sprinkling the divine spirit which is infused into the body, the effect being that the Brahman loses his priestly character, and sinks to the degree of a Sudra. The intoxicating spirit becomes impure, an idea which furnishes the key to the whole moral system of Menu. The law 1 Menu, ch. xi., v. 55 seq. 2 Called mala, which is also a name for sin. Do., ch. xi., v. 94. 3 Do., ch. xi., v. 91 seq. |