CHAPTER V.

BUDDHISM.

IN a former chapter, the ideas entertained by the ancients as to the nature and origin of the human soul were considered. Their bearing on the doctrine of metempsychosis was also explained, and it was shown that this doctrine was connected with the philosophic teachings as to the impurity of matter, and the degrading influence which contact with it had over the spiritual being. We have already, when treating of Hinduism, seen that under the influence of that idea "purity" comes to take the place of obedience as the aim of religious life, and we have now to consider other developments of the same phase of thought. It is important to notice, in the first place, that the reason assigned for metempsychosis necessarily led to that result. The soul is compelled to pass through a series of material transformations, not because it has disobeyed the command of the Gods, but because it is not in a condition fitted for its admission to a place of purity and holiness. It is subject to metempsychosis only so long as it is in a condition of moral impurity and until it is purged from the contamination of the material life. Practically, therefore, transmigration becomes a punishment for vicious conduct that which causes impurity—and hence it may be viewed as a most important sanction of morality. It is not surprising, therefore, that the chief aim of those religious sectaries who receive the doctrine, should be to escape its penalties, this motive having originally far greater weight

than the correlative one of attaining to the condition of spiritual purity necessary to ensure escape from the cycle of necessity." It is long, indeed, before the latter motive has much real influence over moral conduct. But even the desire to escape from the painful rebirth of metempsychosis is preceded by another phase of thought. When the idea was first formed that transmigration, if not actually required for the purpose of purifying the soul, was the result of its impurity, the dogma thus enounced would have to be placed under the sanction of the gods, who would direct the form of embodiment which the soul must from time to time assume, as well as declare what conduct would result in rebirth. In course of time, as that dogma became firmly established, the sanction of the deity would be gradually lost sight of, and the motive for right action would thenceforth be, not obedience to a divine command, but a desire to escape from the fate which awaits the soul impregnated with material desires. This can hardly be said in relation to the priestly class, however, since by their very nature they are supposed to be, not only in a condition of spiritual purity, but even in some sense actually divine. What has been before said of the Brahmans1 agrees with the observation of Lajard, that anciently the priests were considered, not merely the direct ministers of the gods, but as their representatives, and manifestation on the earth, and even their actual incarnation.2

It is the worshipper, not the human God, who has to fear rebirth, and it is this fear which leads him to perform those things which are supposed to be efficacious to free the soul from metempsychosis. But the nature of the rites necessary for this purpose proves that the idea of

1 Supra, p. 149.

2 "Le Culte de Mithra," p. 79. 3 In the Hindu system, however, the Brahman even may sink to the level of a Sudra. See supra, p. 201.

punishment inflicted by an angry deity is still influential. According to Brahmanic teaching the state of future bliss may be secured by oblations to the gods, and by gifts to the priests. The gifts thus presented to the "human gods" are efficacious only so far as they lead the recipients to perform the sacred sacrifices. This office is the peculiar privilege of the priests, and it holds a place of great importance in the Brahmanical system. Dr Haug says that it is "regarded as the means for obtaining power over this and the other world, over visible as well as invisible beings, animate as well as inanimate creatures. Who knows its proper application, and has it duly performed, is in fact looked upon as the real master of the world; for any desire he may entertain, if it be even the most ambitious, can be gratified, any object he has in view can be obtained by means of it. The Yajna, (sacrifice) taken as a whole, is conceived to be a kind of machinery, in which every piece must tally with the other, or a sort of large chain in which no link is allowed to be wanting, or a staircase, by which one may ascend to heaven, or as a personage, endowed with all the characteristics of a human body. It exists from eternity The creation of the world itself was even regarded as the fruit of a sacrifice performed by the Supreme Being. The Yajna exists as an invisible thing at all times, it is like the latent power of electricity in an electrifying machine, requiring only the operation of a suitable apparatus in order to be elicited. It is supposed to extend, when unrolled, from the Ahavanîya, or sacrificial fire, into which all oblations are thrown, to heaven, forming thus a bridge or ladder, by means of which the sacrificer can communicate with the world of gods and spirits, and even ascend, when alive, to their abodes." The Yajna is thus a most potent instrument, but its fficacy depends on the mode in which the sacrifice is

performed. Every part must tally, so that there shall be nothing in excess or deficient. If the rupa, or form, is vitiated the whole sacrifice is lost, and as the power and significance of the Hotri priests at a sacrifice consists in their being masters of the "sacred word," the effect of which depends mainly on the form in which it is uttered,1 it is evident that to obtain the benefit of the Yajna the people must have recourse to the priests. This, however, is equivalent to being entirely dependent on them for escape from re-birth, since it is taught that for gaining heaven a Soma sacrifice is indispensable. The sacred Soma juice has, according to the opinions of ancient Hindu theologians, the power of uniting the sacrificer, even on earth, with the divine being Soma, making him thus one of his subjects, an associate of the gods, and an inhabitant of the celestial world.2 The animal which is sacrificed is instead of the sacrificer himself, and when the former goes to the gods in the fire, so does the sacrificer in the shape of the animal. "Being thus received among the gods, the sacrificer is deemed worthy," says Haug, "to enjoy the divine beverage, the Soma, and participate in the heavenly king who is Soma. The drinking of the Soma makes him a new man; though a new celestial body had been prepared for him at the Pravargya ceremony, the enjoyment of the Soma beverage transforms him again; for the nectar of the gods flows for the first time in his veins, purifying and sanctifying him. This last birth to the complete enjoyment of all divine rights is symbolically indicated in the rites of the morning libation.” 3

1 The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rig Veda, by Dr Haug (1863), Introd. p. 73, seq.

2 Do., p. 80.

3 Do. pp., 60, 62. As to the nature of the Soma plant, see p. 489, note, also F. Windischmann in the Transactions of the Bavarian Academy, vol. iv. (1845).

The rites of the Soma sacrifice might almost be classed with certain magical formulæ, which occupy a foremost place in the religious observances, as well of the followers of the Hindu Siva, as of the various Buddhist peoples. Schlagintweit remarks that "the confidence in the powerful influence of prayers and ceremonies is so common among all Buddhist tribes of High Asia, that every undertaking is begun by them with the recital of incantations and the performance of certain ceremonies by which to appease the wrath of the demons; they, moreover, believe that by virtue of the strict observance of the duties connected with such rites, they will in time acquire a miraculous magical energy, called Siddhi, and finally become liberated from metempsychosis. This view is not opposed to the principles of Buddhism, which declare that faculties superior to those with which nature has endowed men can be obtained by meditation, abstinence, the observation of moral duties, and true repentance of sin." Elsewhere, the same writer, observes that the principal rites and formulæ of Tibetan mysticism are almost identical with the Tantrika ritual of the Hindus, although they also have an extraordinary analogy to the Shamanism of the Siberians.2 It is true that Schlagintweit supposes that the Tantras were probably introduced into the Buddhist sacred literature from India, at so late as the tenth century of the Christian era. Burnouf, also, sees only "une pratique de diverses cérémonies et une adoration de diverses Divinities çivaïtes par des Buddhistes, qui paraissent peu s'inquiéter de la discordance qui existe entre leur foi ancienne et leurs superstitions nouvelles. Cela est si vrai, que la philosophie la plus abstraite reste entière au milieu des formules magiques, des diagrammes et des gesticulations des Tantras. Ce sont donc des Buddhistes

1 "Buddhism in Tibet," p. 242.

2 Do. p. 48.