misery and degradation. The absolute annihilation of the conditions and pains of existence-Nirvâna—is attained by the most perfect dominion over passion, evil desire, and natural sensation." 1 The influence of the actions of a past state of being over the present existence is here clearly expressed, but there is no reference to an inevitable fate ruling a man's future destiny, such as is supposed in the fully developed doctrine of karma. So far from this, although Gautama declared that there was no difference between a sinful Brahman and a sinful Sudra, yet he taught that both Brahman and Sudra alike were capable of attaining by similar means to Nirvâna. How this is to be effected is declared in the theory of The Four Verities or The four excellent truths—the Pain, the Production, the Cessation, and the Path, which Schlagintweit defines as meaning: 1. Pain cannot be separated from existence. 2. Existence is produced by passions and evil desires. 3. Existence is brought to an end by the cessation of evil desires. 4. Revelation of the path to this cessation. Eight good paths are indicated in the early Sudras. 1. The right opinion; 2. The right judgment; 3. The right words; 4. The right mode of acting; 5. The right way of supporting life; 6. The rightly directed intelligence; 7. The right memory; 8. The right meditation. Schlagintweit doubts, however, whether the four truths were taught in this form by the founder of Buddhism, and he gives the following sentence, in which they are formulated, found on ancient Buddhist images, and now recited as a kind of confession of faith :-" Of all things proceeding from cause, the cause of their procession hath the Tathāgata explained. The great Sramana has likewise declared the cause of the extinction of all things." 1 Tathāgata and Sramana are epithets of Sakyamuni, the latter apparently expressing "he who restrains his thoughts, the purely acting." 1 The most important part of this formula, and that which constitutes the distinguishing peculiarity of Gautama's teachings is the fourth verity. This shows the path to Nirvâna, the means of obtaining deliverance from the pains of transmigration, which will not cease until Nirvana be obtained. This way, says Koeppen, "consists not in the worship of gods; not in reading the Vedas; nor in sacrifice, prayers and offerings, self-torments, but in a complete renunciation of all love for existence. This way is open to any one without distinction of rank, capacity, and education-this is the whole sum of the teachings of Buddha." 2 According to Prof. Max Müller, all the precepts which have for their aim the attainment of The Way might be understood as part of a simple moral code, "closing with a kind of mystic meditation on the highest object of thought, and with a yearning after deliverance from all worldly ties."3 This agrees with what Burnouf says, that, without religious practice, Buddhism would be a simple moral philosophy.* In fact, its sole aim is to teach how the pain attendant on continued existence can be escaped, and it proclaims that this can be effected by adherence to a certain line of moral conduct, accompanied, in the case of those who embrace a religious life, with austerities of a severe character. The observances required of the ordinary disciples of Buddha are not so severe. They are as follows-1. Not to kill; 2. Not to steal; 3. Not to commit adultery; 4. Not to lie; 5. Not to get intoxicated; 6. To abstain from unseasonable meals; 7. To abstain from witnessing dances, 2 Op. cit., p. 226. 4 Op. cit., p. 337. 1 Op. cit., p. 16, seq. theatrical performances, music, &c.; 8. To abstain from expensive dresses and perfumery; 9. Not to have a large bed; 10. Not to receive silver or gold.1 These precepts are not in themselves of a very high order, but they were accompanied by others of a more exalted character, which have been preserved in the sacred books. Thus, the six transcendental virtues of Buddhism are charity, purity, patience, courage, contemplation, and knowledge. The first of these, says Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, is not "la liberté ordinaire qui donne à autrui une partie des biens qu' on possède. C'est une charité illimitée qui s'addresse à toutes les créatures sans exception, et qui impose les sacrifices les plus douloureux et les plus extrêmes. La charité doit éteindre dans le cœur de l'homme tout égoïsme, ou comme on dit en style bouddhique, elle conduit à la maturité parfaite de l'être égoïste."2 Thus also, according to Prof. Max Müller, "every shade of vice, hypocrisy, anger, pride, suspicion, greediness, gossiping, cruelty to animals, is guarded against by special precepts. Among the virtues recommended, we find not only reverence of parents, care for children, submission to authority, gratitude, moderation in time of prosperity, submission in time of trial, equanimity at all times, but virtues unknown in any heathen system of morality, such as the duty of forgiving insults and not rewarding evil with evil. All virtues, we are told, spring from Maitrî, and this Maitrî can only be translated by charity and love"3 -a feeling of benevolence towards all mankind, as that term is explained by Burnouf. An enthusiastic writer, speaking of the Dhamma Padam, or the "Footsteps of Religion," a Pali work on 1 J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, op. cit., p. 632. As to these precepts, see Hardy's "Manual of Buddhism," p. 460, seq., and also "Eastern Monachism," by the same author, p. 342. 2 Op. cit., p. 89. Buddhist ethics, goes so far as to say that "in it we have exemplified a code of morality, and a list of precepts, which for pureness, excellence, and wisdom, is only second to that of the Divine Lawgiver himself." 1 The following are some of the best of these moral precepts— 66 Anger is not to be appeased by anger, but by gentleness. "Mental control, and the subjection of the passions, is the path to happiness and eternity. Be not anxious to discover the faults of others, but jealously watch your own. "Let man perform those actions of which futurity will never cause him to repent. "As the solid rock stands unshaken by the storm, so the wise man is unmoved by contempt or applause. 66 Nothing is sinful to the pure. “All the religion of Buddha is contained in these three sentences: —Purify the mind; abstain from vice; practice virtue.” La The high moral tone of the Dhamma Padam cannot be denied, but it should not be overlooked that the theoretical virtues of Buddhism would seem to be far superior to those which are required in practice. Loubère gives the maxims of the priestly orders in Siam, and Sir John Bowring says of them that, "all energetic action, all virtuous exertion, would be paralyzed under such influences." 2 So far as these maxims possess any moral element at all, they are either of such a character as to be almost valueless or of the simplest description. Mr Hardy remarks, as to the Sila precepts, or ten ordinances binding on the priests, that they are all "either of too rigid a character to secure the possibility of observance; or are so loose in their requirements, as defined in other parts of the system, that they are deprived in a great measure of the claim they would otherwise have upon our regard They are 1 Knighton's "History of Ceylon" (1845), p. 77. 2" The Kingdom and People of Siam,” vol. i., p. 323. rather an ineffectual attempt to teach men the way of rectitude than a perfect law." 1 The chief interest which Buddhism possesses for the moral philosopher is the great extension it gives to the objectivity of benevolent action. Gautama, by inspiring his disciples with "the spirit of charity, kindness, and universal pity," did that which had not been accomplished by any preceding religious reformer-he made the recognition of the universal brotherhood of humanity possible. But he did more. Actions which, if enjoined by earlier religions, had been so because they were thought to be due to the rights of others, and as sanctioned by the gods, were now shown to be required by duty to self. A life of perfect morality necessitated attention to, not only the passive duties, but the active virtues of morality, and without such a life the condition of Nirvâna, so highly coveted, could not be attained. But, while acknowledging that in thus making duty towards self the foundation for right conduct, Buddhism effected a great advance in the development of the moral idea, it must not be thought that such a result was ever anticipated by Gautama. According to the Buddhist theory, says a recent writer, "truth is to be spoken, self to be sacrificed, benevolence to be exercised, not for the sake of the good thus done to others, but solely for the effect of this conduct on the soul of the actor, in preparing him for escape from existence. To teach man 'the means of arriving at the other shore,' was another expression for teaching virtue." 2 The aim sought by Gautama was, in fact, to deliver man from the rebirth of metempsychosis, and the duties and observances he enforced were valuable so far only as they were useful for that purpose. Not that Buddhism differs much in this re 1 "Eastern Monachism," p. 343. 2 "Chambers' Encycl." art. " Buddhism," vol. ii., p. 407. |