This is

worn out the strength of my mind and body.”1 language which might have been used by an Inca of Peru, whose parental condition is reproduced in that of the rulers of China and Japan. Mr Dickson affirms that the State in Japan is founded on the idea of the family exactly as in China, whose sage, Mencius, says, "the root of the empire is the State-the root of the State is in the family-the root of the family is in the person of its head." 2 Indeed, the sentiments, and sometimes the very words of the laws of Iyeyas, are taken from the writings of the Chinese sages Confucius and Mencius. The code is founded upon the five duties of universal obligation enunciated by the former in the Chung Yung, that of a sovereign and minor, of a father and son, of husband and wife, of elder and younger brothers, and between friends, and upon "the principle that the administration of government lies in getting proper men, and that such are to be obtained by means of the ruler's own character." Iyeyas wrote that he, like the Mikado, loved his people as a mother does her children, and he added, "this benevolence of mind is called Jin. This Jin may be said to consist of five parts-these are humility, integrity, courtesy, wisdom, and truth." 4 Elsewhere he says

to his subjects, "respect the gods, keep the heart pure, and be diligent in business during the whole life," adding, "the aged, whether widowers or widows, and orphans, and persons without relatives, every one should assist with kindness and liberality for justice to these four, is the root of good government." 5

These sentiments are doubtless derived from the

1 Quoted by Dr Bridges in "International Policy" (1860), p. 387. 2 This saying, which occurs in "Le Low," is thus translated by Dr Legge :-"The root of the kingdom is in the State; the root of the State is in the clan; the root of the clan is in the person."-The Works of Mencius (1875), p. 237. 4 Do., p. 268.

3 Op. cit., p. 269.

5 Do., p. 242.

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teaching of the Chinese sages, and it is, therefore, somewhat surprising to learn that the Chinese "seem to be almost void of philanthropy." This statement probably expresses the general truth, but it is by no means absolutely true. A late traveller undoubtedly affirms that "the charitable institutions of China are far from numerous, and but ill-organised as a rule."2 Moreover, the Abbé Huc declared that "the Chinese, so ready and skilful at organising every kind of society that has any commercial or industrial object in view, or even for resisting thieves or the enticements of the gaming-table, have never yet formed any benevolent society for the solace of the sick and the unfortunate, with the single exception of a society to provide coffins gratis for the dead who have no relatives to undertake the funeral.” And this he ascribes to a superstitious and self-interested motive. The Chinese have a special genius for the formation of trade societies and mutual benefit associations.1 The former consist of combinations not merely for fixing the price of articles by preventing undue competition, but also for keeping up the rate of wages. These trade societies make a near approach, in some respects, to the old English guilds. Doolittle says:--"Usually about the third or fourth Chinese month, the shopkeepers, journeymen, and master workmen who have entered into unions regulating their business, meet together in some temple to feast, behold theatrical shows,

3

1 Meadows, "The Chinese and their Rebellions," p. 207.

2 Thomson's "Straits of Malacca, Indo-China and China" (1875), p. 271.

3 "The Chinese Empire" (1855), vol ii. p. 325.

4 At the end of the last century a formidable communistic society was formed, under the title of the Thien ti Hoih, or the "Brotherhood of the Heaven and the Earth," the object of which professed to be to abolish oppression and misery from the earth, but which became associated with opium smuggling. For an account of that society, see Röttger's "Geschichte," published at Berlin in 1852.

amend their rules as deemed best, and consult about their affairs in common. Offerings are made, and incense and candles burnt, on such occasions, before the divinity worshipped there, as an important part of the programme of proceedings, in the hope that his or her aid will be secured in this manner to enable them to conduct their business wisely and profitably."1 The associations for mutual benefit among the Chinese appear to be chiefly clubs for the lending of money without interest, on the principle of the English building societies, in which the shares advanced to members are drawn by lot.2

It would be a mistake to suppose that the practice of private benevolence is unknown to the Chinese. Beggars are very numerous, at all events in the large cities, and their necessities must be relieved, or they could not exist. The alms bestowed upon them would seem, however, to be exacted more often than freely given. In the large towns the beggars of each districts are controlled by a head man,3 and shopkeepers and others enter into an arrangement with the head man that they shall not be importuned for money by the beggars during a stipulated time. Those who neglect to make such an arrangement are liable to be continually annoyed for contributions, and very effectual measures are taken to compel payment of them. Sometimes the beggars go round in companies to the shops or stores making a deafening noise with gongs or sticks, and, says Mr Doolittle, "a single lusty beggar with his lungs and staff, or gong, will make such a noise as to interrupt business entirely by drowning conversation, so that the shopkeeper, in a kind of self-defence, tosses him the 'cash' he demands,

1 "Social Life of the Chinese," p. 462.

2 Do., p. 458 seq.

3 Huc says that the King of the Beggars at Pekin is a real power, "The Chinese Empire," vol ii., p. 327.

The These e deverbess renery very consberite jr te besering PE Ts in winter, the ria sometimes by and isaone anong the most desfitate quantes of walled second-band clothing, a praiseworthy practice which is occasionally imitated by the officers of the gack who thus seek to protect the most needy of their prisoners from the deadly effects of numbness or cold. Moreover, at Fuhchau, when provisions are unusually scarce or extremely dear, the gentry and rich men sometimes open the granaries provided for this purpose, and sell rice to the poor at a very reduced price. It is true that rice is bought when cheap and stored up until it becomes dear, but the action is one of pure benevolence. This is shown by the further custom, mentioned by Mr Doolittle, of money being subscribed for the purchase of rice for distribuOp. cit., p. 527 seq. 2 Do., p. 529. 3 Do., p. 156.

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tion among those widows and orphans who are not able to maintain themselves, and who have no friends willing to help them. Moreover, if we may judge by the numerous public charities at Fuhchau, the Chinese are by no means so backward in the organization of benevolent associations as some writers assert. Foremost among their charitable institutions are the foundling asylums, called into existence probably by the custom of exposing infant children. Societies have been formed also for the relief of indigent and virtuous widows. The members of one of these societies, which is connected with the municipal temple of the city, usually rich men or gentry, who agree to furnish money monthly to aid a definite number of respectable widows, who must comply with the regulations of the society, each member specifying the number of persons he pledges himself to aid, whether one or more." Burial in a decent and proper manner is considered of great importance amongst the Chinese, as among all Eastern peoples, and to aid a very poor person in thus disposing of the body of his parent, is considered in some sense a meritorious act. At Fuhchau there is a society whose object is "to aid the exceedingly poor people to bury their dead, or to provide funds for the purchase of coffins to contain the bodies of respectable strangers who die" there.1

We have seen that associations for charitable purposes, or rather which required benevolent action by its members, were formerly not unknown to the Japanese. The Otokodaté won the respect of all men for their good deeds, which would seem to have been dispensed indifferently to all in distress.2 The conduct of these

1 For the above account of the Fuhchau charities, see Doolittle, op. cit., p. 473 seq.

2 supra, vol. i., p. 455.