*

Italy arms her Duilio with an enormous one hundred-ton gun. England has her monster cannon of two hundred tons, throwing a projectile of six thousand pounds. Woolwich Arsenal has turned out every day for twelve years a field-battery, and four thousand workmen labor incessently in Armstrong's factory. So the government works of Spandau, Deutz, Dantzig, and Strasburg, and Krupp's establishment produce daily sixty field-pieces and two heavy guns of 100 kilos caliber. The defensive works at Plymouth have already cost thirty-three billions of francs; those of Portsmouth, seventy-five millions, and at other marine points three hundred and fifty millions since 1872. Belgium has spent 50 millions to complete the fortifications at Antwerp; Italy, 136 millions on her frontier, and 100 millions on the roadstead of Spezzia; Holland, 65 millions on her locks to submerge her lowlands in case of war. Germany has expended one hundred and sixty-two millions on the Alsace-Lorraine frontier, twenty-five millions for the defense of its twelve hundred miles of Baltic coast, seventy-five millions at Wilhemshafen and Bremen and Hamburg, two hundred and ten millions at Mayence and Magdeburg, and a few other points-five hundred and six millions since 1873 upon her strongholds and offensive works on the French line.

Of ships bearing guns ranging ten miles and upward, England has 12, France 18, Italy 5, Germany 3, China 2, Russia 3, and Denmark 1. Of ships bearing guns ranging from 9 to 10 miles, England has 1, France 8, Italy 2, Germany 12, and Brazil 1.++

DE GOLTZ, THE PRUSSIAN MAJOR,

In his "Nation Armee," admits that

66

The

· Every continental power has only one great pre-occupation,—that of protection *NOTE.-The "Duke of Wellington," the most powerful ship in the navy in 1854-5, carried 131 guns. The total cost of her equipments was $85.000. "Benlow," a late addition to the British fleet cost $1,038,485. The cost of one charge for a 68 pounder gun in 1856 was $3.75; the cost of ne charge of one of the 10-ton-guns on the " "Benbow was $765 00. The 900 pounds of powder of which it consisted cost $350.00. the steel cannon shell $400 00. and the cartridge silk cloth, $15.0). The cost of Ft. Cunningham, as armed in 1860, was $28,000 00; in 1868, with 9 guns, $163,000 00.

·

against conquest; every nation covers its territory with fortresses and intrenched camps, increases its effectives, and exhausts its resources in armaments without limit. This must fatally lead to international ruin, say the economists. 'Most indubitably it must,' answers Major von Golts; but how is it to be helped? The first nation which relaxes in its vigilance will infallibly lose its situation and be the victim of every collision which might ensue.' And then he adds that the next war must be of a destructive violence which has been unknown up to the present day. On both sides will be displayed, in this struggle to the death, all moral and material forces possible for the work of mutual annihilation.'

De Goltz insists that "wars have become national affairs; they are an instrument used by policy to gain its ends; and even when that end is only of secondary interest the total defeat of the adversary is a necessity. He who resorts to violence must hesitate at nothing, for he can conquer only on condition that he is more brutal than his antagonist. The method now adopted by Germany is inseparable from an offensive brutality. Our tactics are to

CRUSHING BLOWS ON THE FIELD OF BATTLE.

Above all, our foes must be paralyzed by the employment of gigantic masses, and, for all that follows, we say with Mark Antony, Happen what may! misfortune is unchained; let it go whither it will.''

Here we have a latest utterance of militarism and the war-party in Germany. Not mere armies, but armed nations, are hereafter to meet on the battle-field.

THE STANDING ARMY OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Is based on the system of universal liability to arms; 10 years is the term of service, 3 in active service, 7 in the army of the reserves, with the liability of serving 2 years in the Landwehr. This population of 38,070,054 has a peace army of 480,000, a war army of 840,000, a navy of 69 ironclods and monitors and 21,930 men, with a national debt of $2,509,971,800,-the direct result of wars and gigantic preparations for war.

THE STANDING ARMY OF BELGIUM

Is formed by conscription, to which every able-bodied man of 19 is liable; substitution permitted; service 8 years, two thirds on furlough. Belgium has a population of 5.585,846, with a standing army of 46.272, and a standing army and reserves of 106,683. In its national debt of $91,858,545, $15,000 is yearly included to the heirs and assigns of the Duke of Wellington. The national debt mainly represents the share which Belgium had to take in the national liabilities of the United Netherlands after separating from that kingdom in 1834. The remainder of the debt arose from works of public utility, particularly the construction of State railways.

DENMARK'S ARMY AND NAVY

Embrace all the able bodied men of 22; service 16 years, 8 years in the regular army and 8 in the reserves. Denmark has a population of 2,096,091, with a standing army and reserves of 86,991, with 44 war-vessels. The national debt is $48,665,000. The navy is recruited by conscription from the coast population. The Minister of War this year asks the Landsthing for 6,000,000 crowns, and the Minister of Marine for 4,000,000 crowns more than last year, $20,000,000 crowns are asked to strengthen the fleet.

FRANCE ENACTS UNIVERSAL LIABILITY

To arms from the age of 20 to that of 40 years; 5 years in the active army, 4 in the reserve, 5 in the "armee territoriale," and 6 in the reserve; in the navy, 5 in the active, and 4 on the reserve, when men pass into the territorial army, where they remain until age of 40.

France will henceforth allow no shirking of military duty. Doctors, lawyers, priests, princes, and professors must all shoulder their rifles for three years, with a probability of five more on the reserve. This is right. The men who create a sentiment for war should go to war.

France, with a population of 37,672,048, has an active army of 704,716, reserve of 510,296, territorial of 582,523, reserve territorial of 625,633, total, 2,423.164; a navy of 47,757, and a navy reserve of 1,330,000, with 336 war vessels. If circum. stances necessitate, France could, exclusive of the 1.330,000 in the auxilliary service, mass 2,500,000 soldiers, of whom, 1,500,000 have served more than four years, 600,ooo six months to one year, and 400,000 from thirteen to twenty-eight days.

The yearly budget is nearly $200,000,000. The national debt of France is the largest in the world, $6,000,000,000, chiefly contracted in the French wars from

1800 to 1814, under Napoleon I., and from 1852 to 1870, under Napoleon III. The Franco-German war increased the debt $1,857.876.400. The foolish expeditions in Tunis, Madagascar, and Tonquin, have cost $500,645,000.*,

NO COUNTRY IN ANCIENT OR MODERN TIMES

Was ever burdened with such a debt. It is twice as large as the debt of the United States at the close of the civil war. It is one-fourth larger than the debt of England ever was. The enormous debts of England and the United States were contracted to meet the expenses of wars; but as soon as peace was secured, they commenced to reduce the amount of their indebtedness. But the debt of France has been steadily increasing since the conclusion of the war with Germany. The appropriations for the present year are greater than ever before, and in excess of those of any country in the world.

France expends anpually ten times more money for purposes of war than for the education of her children. Consequently 30 per cent. of her population above six years of age are unable to read.†4

*NOTE.-In 1793, under the Revolution, the public debt stood at $160,000,000; in 1815, under the First Empire, at $353,225,000; in 1830, under the Bourbons, at $708.850,000; in 1848, under the Orleans, at $910,000,000; in 1862, under the Republic, at $1,226,250,000; in 1870, under the Second Empire, at $2,750,000,000; and in 1882, owing to the last great war, at $5,500,000,000.

THE WAR OF 1870-71

entailed these stupendous losses on France: Extraordinary charges in excess of the annual military budget, 1,315,000,000 frs. ; indemnity to Germany, capital and interest, 5,315,000,000 frs.; maintenance of German troops in France, 340,000,000 frs. ; Indemnity to departments, communes, and private individuals, 1,487,000,000 frs.; loss of taxes during the war, 2 024,000,000 frs.; reconstitution of war material, 2,144,000,000 frs.; military pen-ions, divers revenues lost through the annexation of the canals, 1,314,000,000 frs. ; in round numbers, a total of 14 milliards, ($2,800.000,000). The amount of the loans made to cover this expenditure involved an excess of interest of 663,800,000 frs. ($132,760,000).

Since the disastrous events of 1870 the debt has

INCREASED MORE ALARMINGLY.

There was not only the cost of the Germ in war but indemnity to the conquerer ($1,500,000.000). After the war and indemnity loans had all been raised, and spent, or paid over, the country needed rest, but instead of giving it the loan raising went on as before. In 1878 redeemable rente was issued for the first time, and between that year and 1884 $675,000,000 was in this form added to the funded debt. The next month another $160,000,000 was added, but the floating debt was far ahead of any provision for its funding. "If," says M. Henry Verge, "the debt of the nation continues to grow at the same pace up to the end of the century, it will by that time reach a total of nearly eight thousand five hundred million dollars. From 1814 to 1830,

DURING THE BOURBON MONARCHY,

The deficits amounted to $4.054,600.00; from 1830 to 1848, under Louis Phillippe, to $199,572,600.00; from 1848 to 1851, under the second Republic, to $71,874,800.00, and from 1851 to 1870, under the second Empire, to $427,708,900 00: in deficits alone from 1814 to 1870, to $703,209,900.00.

Another loan has been called for.

Between 1811 and 1868, 38 loans were issued in the form of perpetual annuities,

or rentes.

† NOTE.-France spends on an average $5 on war and 35 cents on national educa. tion; England, $4.70 on war and 77 cents on education; Holland, $4.50 on war and 79 cents on education; the German States, $3 on war and 75 cents on education; Russia, $2.60 on war and 3 cents on education; Denmark, $2.12 on war and $1.14 on education; Switzerland, $1.20 on war and $1.04 on education; Italy, $1.82 on war and 16 cents on education; Belgium, $1.04 on war and 55 cents on education. Some indication of the amount of illiteracy of the different countries of Europe is furnished by the percentages of soldiers who cannot read nor write. In Russia it is 79.1; Hungary, 50 80; Italy, 41.74; Austria, 38.90; Belguim, 17.48; France, 14.89; Netherlands, 12.82; Switzerland, 4; Germany, 2.37; Sweden, 1.90; Denmark. 0.36.

HOLLAND

Has a population of 4,172,971; standing army and navy. 71,651; standing army and reserves, 174, 111, and 138 vessels of war; debt, $494,851,675, created by wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

LUXEMBOURG,

With a population of 209,570, has a public debt of $3,000,000. By the treaty of London (May 11, 1867) Luxembourg remains under the sovereignty of the House of Orange-Nassau. It has been declared neutral.

MONTENEGRO

Has no standing army, and no debt. Population, 236,000.

NORWAY.

Troops raised mainly by conscription, and to a small extent by enlistment; term of service, from twenty-one for ten years; population, 1,806,000; standing army and navy, 22,250; standing army and reserves, 40, 705, with forty vessels of war; national debt, $25,413,885.

PORTUGAL.

Four hundred dollars paid to the government relieves from conscription; term of service, from twenty-one, three years in the regular army and five̟ in the reserve; population, 4.708, 178; army and navy, 38,181; standing army and reserves, 78,022, and 39 war vessels; debt, $538,540,790, by war.

ROUMANIA.

All between twenty and forty-six, four years in the standing army and four in its reserve, and six in the territorial army and two in its reserve; population, 5.376,000; peace army, 18,532; permanent army and reserves, 107,000; debt, $132,788,665.

RUSSIA.

Army by conscription, from twenty to forty; term of service, six years in the standing army, and nine in the reserve, and seven years in the active and three in the reserve navy; population, 82,976,812; standing army and navy, 997.721; standing army and reserve, 2,363,764, with 373 vessels of war. Should the next war become a European conflict, Russia, according to the law of January 1, 1874, can call up 13,000,000 men, making effective 4,000,000 men, well drilled. The armies of Finland, Orenburg, and Siberia number 211,441 men; on a war-footing, 2,433,305 warriors. National debt, $3,058,112,695, chiefly created by war. The Crimean war cost $635,000,000, and the RussoTurkish $650,000,000.**

SERVIA.

Term of service, four years; population, 1,810,606; standing army, 12,979; standing army and reserves, 265,000. Prior to the war of 1976-7 it was free from debt, with a reserve fund. Debt, $20,000,000.

NOTE.-COST OF WAR IN 25 YEARS.

The following is carefully compiled from the official statistics of the various nations concerned, and include, in addition to the troops slain, a portion of the deaths occasioned by the ravages of the war among the civil population:

LIVES LOST, 1852-77-KILLED IN BATTLE, or died of WOUNDS AND DISEASE. Crimean war, 750,000; Italian war (1859), 45,000; war of Sleswick-Holstein, 3,000; American civil war-the North 280,000, the South 520,000, total 800,000; war between Prussia, Austria, and Italy, in 1866, 45,000; expeditions to Mexico, Cochin China, Morocco, Paraguay, etc., 65,000; Franco-German war of 1870-71-France 155,000, Germany 60,000, total 215,000; Turkish massacres of Christians in Bulgaria, Armenia, etc., 1876-77, 25,000; total, 1,948,000,000.

COST, 1852-77.

Crimean war, $1,700,000,000: Italian war of 1850, $30,000,000; American civil war— North $4,700,000,000, South $2,300,000,000, total $7,000,000,000; Sleswick-Holstein war, $35,000,000; Austrian and Prussian war (1866), $330,000,000; expeditions to Mexico, Morrocco, Paraguay, etc. (say only), $200,000,000; Franco-Prussian war, $2,500,000,000; total, $12,065,000,000.

ITALY.

Universal liability to arms from twenty-one to forty years of age; service, eight in the army, four in the active and seven in the territorial militia ; national debt, chiefly by war, $2,540,313,000. Martel's "Military Italy" gives for this kingdom 736,502 regular troops, 330,767 mobilized militia, and 893.998 territorial militia. This gives a total of 1,967,207 soldiers out of a population of 29,000,000 (which may be increased by the law of 1882 to 2,670,000 men). The navy numbers 15,055 men, and 72 vessels of war. Since the establishment of United Italy, in 1861, costly militarism has produced frequent annual deficits, rising in one year to $133,440,000. In later years the public revenue is diminishing and the deficits increasing.

SPAIN.

All over twenty must serve eight years; population, 16,858,721; standing army and navy, 216,526; standing army and reserve, 486,825, with 124 vessels of war; debt, $2.504.748,570, chiefly by war. At the conquest of Granada, under Philip V., in 1745, the debt was $45,000,000. In 1877, it had increased to $2,750,000,000, the direct result of costly civil wars-reduced through a diminution of the war spirit.

SWEDEN.

Army, by enlistment and conscription drawn by annual levy, from twenty to twenty-five; population, 4,579,115; standing army and navy, 50,071; standing army and reserves, 182,572, with 72 war vessels; debt, $63,792,537. The foundation of the Swedish army debt dates from Charles IX.

SWITZERLAND.

No standing army within the limits of the Confederation permitted-every citi. zen must bear arms; population, 2,846.202; regular army and landwehr, 205,176; debt, $6,720,000, with state property, $7,6000,000. Army available only for de

fence.

TURKEY.

Service compulsory for twenty years, ten in the Nizam, four in the Redif, and six in the Mouhstafix; inhabitants of Constantinople and of Crete exempt by an old-established privilege; non-Mohamedans not liable, but pay a tax of $115 a year; population, 21,663,000; standing army and navy, 162,517; standing army and reserves, 610,200; 25 war vessels; debt, $1,226,000,000.

BULGARIA.

Service from twenty, four in active army, four in reserve, and four in landwehr; population, 1,998,983; standing army 17.670; standing army and reserves, 52,000.

EASTERN ROUMELIA.

Under the treaty of Berlin (1878) Roumelia enjoyed an autonomous administra. tion, but under the immediate authority of Turkey (1886), it became a part of Bul. garia, with its population of 817,513.

IN GREECE,

there is universal liability to arms; term of service, nineteen years, three years active, six reserve, and ten landwehr; population, 2,067,775; navy, 653; standing army and reserves, 82,076; 15 vessels of war; national debt (chiefly war), $142,957,075.

The smaller governments must imitate the larger.

Greece, previously in an almost bankrupt condition through its foolish waste on armaments, with the estimates of the current year unrealized, with the civil and military employes and even the soldiers for months unpaid, with incessant hand-tomouth borrowing of the treasury, and with special war credits, has voted $40,000,000, and anew plunges into farther debt.

THE GERMAN ARMY EMBRACES

the whole able-bodied population from 20 to 28; 3 years in the active service, 4 in the reserve, and 5 in the landwehr, and to the age of 42 in the landstrum. The German Empire, with a population of 45,194,172, has a standing army of 461,597, and a standing army and reserve of 1,769, 106, with 96 vessels of war, and a debt of $1,485,820,000.* The law of March 2, 1874, empowers the government, in case

*

*The German Empire, as such, had no public debt when established in 1871. The debt above referred to is distributed among 23 German states. The annual interest