one of the noblest monuments to the genius whose fame rests chiefly on his military exploits. D presupposes a much higher civilization than that exhibited by C. Society was more highly developed, and new problems called for special laws. It also displays a much higher moral sense than C. It is written with a lofty eloquence which distinguishes it above most other parts of the Pentateuch. It emphasizes life and conduct rather than mere formal acts of sacrifice. It lays stress upon ethical ideas, and humane sentiments are common. In some of its provisions it contradicts, or at least supplants C. The latter, Exodus 2024, commands the erection of altars at various places. D centers all religious functions at Jerusalem. It was not the work of a jurist, but a prophet. Very justly D may be regarded as being the high water-mark of ancient law, superior in its religious and humane conceptions, not only to all former Jewish law, but to the laws of any other ancient peoples of that period. Some scholars, including Jewish, assert there was a D2 which added Deuteronomy 27, 29 10-29, 30 1-10 and parts of Deuteronomy 29 and 34. The essence of the law is in Deuteronomy 12-26 inclusive. The Law of Holiness Leviticus 17-26 Date about 600 B. C. This code according to some writers was compiled by Ezekiel, though Driver1 dissents from this view. It contains but little civil or criminal law, but relates chiefly to moral and ceremonial law. It does contain, 1 Driver's Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, page 148. The Priestly Code 35 however, humane sentiments. It emphasizes the idea of sin in its personal aspect, whereas before sin had been regarded chiefly as social or tribal. In the earlier periods of Jewish history when a crime was committed the whole tribe must suffer and make expiation. This was the inevitable result of a state of society where the family was the unit, and where individuals were of value only as members of the family or tribe. The idea that sin was personal was a distinct advance on former theories. Its appeal to conscience is new in Jewish experience. The nearest approach perhaps in the whole Pentateuch to the lofty spiritual ideals of Jesus is found in Leviticus 1918, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." That H constituted an independent code see Leviticus 26 46 4 The Priestly Code Date 444 B. C. Ex. 25-31 18, 35-40 Leviticus 1-16. 27 Parts of Genesis and Numbers The Priestly Code was no doubt compiled in its present form about 500 B. C. during and shortly after the Babylonian Captivity. It was read by Ezra to the people in 444 B. C., Neh. 12 1-3, and marks definitely the transformation of the Jewish race into a Jewish church. The political independence of Israel had been utterly destroyed and her principal men had been in exile in Babylon for two generations. The old idea of temporal power had to be abandoned. In its place was developed the conception of the spiritual mission of the Jewish people. The Priestly Code was well adapted to foster this conception and to hasten the process of transformation. The church must now have an elaborate ritual. The Temple at Jerusalem became the absolute center of Jewish religious life and its accompanying ceremonies. The rules for sacrifices, for tithes, the law of clean and unclean, the sacred dues, and various ceremonies to atone for the sins of the people, constitute the bulk of this code. Its minute regulations, however, of the daily life of the Hebrews tended to formalism and hypocrisy, which gradually hardened into mere ceremonialism in which morals were too often relegated to the background and conduct was obscured by ritual. P was accepted as authoritative as early as 250 B. C. Some of P is pre-exilic in origin. Its elaboration came later in the great Code. Sometimes it contradicts D, usually it supplements it. Its purpose was to stamp individuality on the Jewish race and its religion. Hence the emphasis on sin, the need of purification. To accomplish the latter an elaborate ritual was devised. It was collected in small codes, and these compiled some time after Nehemiah. A brief comparison of D and P will be found profitable. D commands the establish- P presupposes this sanctument of a central sanctu- ary as already existing. ary at Jerusalem. D states the priests belonged to the tribe of Levi and that all Levites exercised priestly functions. P says they were of the family of Aaron and makes a sharp distinction between priests and Levites. D prescribes three agricult- P prescribes six. ural feasts. Our study in the following pages embraces primarily only the statutes and codes gathered up into the Torah, at the time of the closing of the legal canon. Many references to the Law are found in the prophets and other parts of the Old Testament. These did not have the same binding force and did not command the reverence and respect which the Jews entertained for the Law itself. Wherever these statements of the law are of especial interest or importance they have been cited in their appropriate places. No attempt has been made, for the obvious reason above referred to, to include all the instances where laws have been cited or prescribed in the histories, prophecies, or wisdom writings of the Old Tes tament. The foregoing codes do not by any means include all of Israel's laws. Scattered throughout the Pentateuch are many ordinances, either single or in small groups, which went to make up the Torah. These are included in our study but are difficult to classify and in most instances it is impossible to assign a true date or author ship. The internal evidence very often is all we have to go by. The practical difficulty in conforming to our plan of showing chronological development so far as may be done, is therefore apparent. When possible these are referred to their true place in the legal canon, by proper designation. In most instances no dating or other data can be furnished. We have had to be content to designate those laws which can be traced back of the specific groups known as Codes, as Early Laws. Generally speaking, this means before 800 B. C., although many single laws were formulated, or at least written down and announced, at much later dates. 6 Code of Ezekiel Ezekiel 40-48 Date 572 B. C. This is a theoretical code formulated by the prophet Ezekiel 572 B. C., while in captivity in Babylon. It was never adopted by the Jews and its value is chiefly historical and illustrative. Coming as it did between D and P, it bridges the intellectual gulf between the two and furnishes us data as to the processes of legislation that were going on. For the reason that it was a paper code only, not regarded as binding in any legal sense, no extended analysis of it is attempted. 7 Later Laws The Captivity in Babylon exercised a profound influence, not only over the Jewish national life, but their ways of thinking and individual modes of life. What more rational conclusion to the proud but tortured race |