so much generosity, that it acquired him the greatest honour; and for which, at the request of Ctesiphon, a crown of gold was decreed him, as a reward for his having presented the commonwealth with a sum of money out of his own estate, sufficient to defray what was wanting of the sums for repairing the wall.

On the present occasion, that is, after the battle of Charonea, the orators who opposed Demosthenes having all risen up in concert against him, and having cited him to take his trial according to law, the people not only declared him innocent of the several accusations laid to his charge, but conferred more honours upon him than he had enjoyed before; so strongly did the veneration which they had for his zeal and fidelity overbalance the efforts of calumny and malice.

The Athenians, (a fickle wavering people, and apt to punish their own errors and omissions in the persons of those whose projects were often rendered abortive for no other reason but because they had executed them too slowly,) in thus crowning Demosthenes, in the midst of a public calamity which he alone seemed to have brought upon them, pay the most glorious homage to his abilities and integrity. By this wise and brave conduct, they seem in some measure to confess their own error in not having followed his counsel neither fully nor early enough; and to confess themselves alone guilty of all the evils which had befallen them.

a But the people did not stop here. The bones of such as had been killed in the battle of Charonea having been brought to Athens to be interred, they appointed Demosthenes to pronounce the eulogium of those brave men; a manifest proof that they did not ascribe to him the ill success of the battle, but to Divine Providence only, who disposes of human events at pleasure; a circumstance which was expressly mentioned in the inscription engraved on the monument of those illustrious deceased warriors.

"This earth entombs those victims to the state
"Who fell a glorious sacrifice to zeal.
"Greece, on the point of wearing tyrant chains,
"Did, by their deaths alone, escape the yoker
"This Jupiter decreed: no effort, mortals,
"Can save you from the mighty will of fate.
"To gods alone belongs the attribute

"Of being free from crimes, with never-ending joy."

Demosthenes opposed Æschines, who was perpetually reproaching him with having occasioned the loss of the battle in question, with this solid answer: "Censure me," says he, "for the counsels I gave, but do not calumniate me. a Plut in Demosth, p. 855. Demosth, pro Ctes. p. 519, 520, Demosth. pro Ctes. p. 505.

"for the ill success of them. For it is the Supreme Being "who conducts and terminates all things; whereas it is from "the nature of the counsel itself that we are to judge of the "intention of him who offers it. If therefore the event has "declared in favour of Philip, impute it not to me as a crime, "since it is God, and not myself, who disposed of the victory. But, if you can prove that I did not exert myself "with probity, vigilance, and an activity indefatigable, and superior to my strength; if with these I did not seek, I "did not employ, every method which human prudence "could suggest, and did not inspire the most necessary and "noble resolutions, such as were truly worthy of Athenians; "show me this, and then give what scope you please to your "accusations."

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66

a He afterwards uses that bold and sublime figure, which is looked upon as the most beautiful passage in his oration, and is so highly applauded by Longinus &. Demosthenes endeavours to justify his own conduct, and prove to the Athenians, that they did not do wrong in giving Philip battle. He is not satisfied with merely citing in a frigid manner the example of the great men who had fought for the same cause in the plains of Marathon, at Salamis, and before Platea. No, he makes a quite different use of them, says this rhetorician; and, on a sudden, as if inspired by some god, and possessed with the spirit of Apollo himself, cries out, swearing by those brave defenders of Greece: "No, Athenians, you have not erred. I swear by those illustrious men who fought by land at Marathon and Platea; by sea before "Salamis and Artemisium; and all those who have been "honoured by the commonwealth with the solemn rites of "burial; and not those only who have been crowned with 66 success, and came off victorious." Would not one conclude, adds Longinus, that, by changing the natural air of the proof, in this grand and pathetic manner of affirming by oaths of so extraordinary a nature, he deifies, in some measure, those ancient citizens, and makes all who die in the same glorious manner so many gods, by whose names it is proper to swear?

I have already observed, in another place, how naturally apt these c orations (spoken in a most solemn manner to the glory of those who lost their lives in fighting for the cause of liberty) were to inspire the Athenian youth with an ardent zeal for their country, and a warm desire to signalize themselves in battle. Another ceremony, observed with regard

a Demosth. pro Ctes. p. 508.

Longin. de sublim c. xiv.

e Demosthenes, in his oration against Leptines, p. 562, observes, that the Athenians were the only people who caused tuneral orations to be spoken in honour of such persons as had lost their lives in defence of their country, d Eschin, cont: a Ctesiph. p. 452.

to the children of those whose fathers died in the bed of honour, was no less efficacious to inspire them with the love of virtue. In a celebrated festival, in which shows were exhibited to the whole people, a herald came upon the stage, and, producing the young orphans drest in complete armour, proclaimed with a loud voice: "These young orphans, whom "an untimely death in the midst of dangers has deprived of "their illustrious fathers, have found in the people a parent, "who has taken care of them till no longer in a state of in"fancy. And now they send them back, armed cap-a-pie, "to follow, under the most happy auspices, their own affairs; "and invite them to emulate one another in deserving the "chief employments of the state." By such methods martial bravery, the love of one's country, and a taste for virtue and solid glory, are perpetuated in a state.

It was the very year of the battle of Charonea, and two years before the death of Philip, that Æschines, jealous of the glory of his rival, impugned the decree which had granted him a crown of gold, and drew up an accusation against Ctesiphon, or rather against Demosthenes. But the cause was not pleaded till seven or eight years after, about the fifth or sixth year of the reign of Alexander. I shall relate the event of it in this place, to avoid breaking in upon the history of the life and actions of that prince.

No cause ever excited so much curiosity, nor was pleaded with so much pomp. a People flocked to it from all parts (says Cicero) and they had great reason for so doing; for what sight could be nobler than a conflict between two orators, each of them excellent in his way; both formed by nature, improved by art, and animated by perpetual dissensions, and an implacable animosity against each other?

These two orations have always been considered as the master-pieces of antiquity, especially that of Demosthenes. Cicero had translated the whole of it, a strong proof of the high opinion he entertained of it. Unhappily for us, the preamble only to that performance is now extant, which is sufficient to make us very much regret the loss of the rest.

Amidst the numberless beauties which are conspicuous in every part of these two orations, methinks there appears, if I may be allowed to censure the writings of such great men, a considerable defect, that very much lessens their perfection, and which appears to me directly repugnant to the rules of solid and just eloquence; and that is, the gross injurious terms in which the two orators reproach one another. The same objection has been made to Cicero, with regard to his a Ad quod judicium concursus dicitur e tota Græcia factus esse: Quid enim aut tam visendum, aut tam audiendum fuit, quam summorum oratorum, in gra vissima causa accurata et inimicitiis incensa contentio? Cicer, de opt. gen. Ora b De opt gen, Orat. F

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VOL. V.

orations against Anthony. I have already declared that this manner of writing, this kind of gross, opprobrious, expressions, were the very reverse of solid eloquence; and, indeed, every speech, which is dictated by passion and revenge, never fails of being suspected by those who judge of it; whereas, an oration that is strong and invincible from its reason and argument, and which at the same time is conducted with reserve and moderation, wins the heart whilst it informs the understanding, and persuades no less by the esteem it inspires for the orator than by the force of his arguments.

The juncture seemed to favour Æschines very much; for the Macedonian party, whom he always befriended, was very powerful in Athens, especially after the ruin of Thebes. Nevertheless, Eschines lost his cause, and was justly sentenced to banishment for his rash accusation. He thereupon went and settled himself in Rhodes, where he opened a school of eloquence, the fame and glory of which continued for many ages. He began his lectures with the two orations that had occasioned his banishment. Great encomiums were given to that of Æschines; but when they heard that of Demosthenes, the plaudits and acclamations were redoubled. And it was then that he spoke these words, so highly worthy of praise in the mouth of an enemy and a rival; "But "what applauses would you not have bestowed, had you "heard Demosthenes speak it himself!"

To conclude, the victor made a good use of his conquest. For, at the time that Æschines was leaving Athens in order to embark for Rhodes, Demosthenes ran after him, and forced him to accept of a purse of money, which must have obliged him so much the more as he had less room to expect such an offer. On this occasion, Æschines cried out: a How will it be possible for me not to regret a country, in "which I leave an enemy more generous than I can hope "to find friends in any other part of the world!”

SECT. VII.

Philip declared generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians. His death.

The battle of Charonea may be said to have enslaved Greece. Macedon, at that time, with no more than 30,000 soldiers, gained a point, which Persia, with millions of men, had attempted unsuccessfully at Platea, at Salamis, and at Marathon. Philip, in the first years of his reign, had re

a Some authors ascribe these words to Demosthenes, when, three years after, he met with the same fate as Eschines, and was also banished from Athens. A. M. 3667. Ant. J. C. 337.

pulsed, divided, and disarmed, his enemies. In the succeeding ones, he had subjected, by artifice or force, the most powerful states of Greece, and had made himself its arbiter; but now he prepares to revenge the injuries which Greece had received from the Barbarians, and meditates no less a design than the destruction of their empire. The greatest advantage he gained by his last victory (and this was the object he long had in view and never lost sight of) was to get himself appointed, in the assembly of the Greeks, their generalissimo against the Persians. In this quality he made preparations, in order to invade that mighty empire. He nominated, as leaders of part of his forces, Attalus and Parmenio, two of his captains, on whose valour and wisdom he chiefly relied, and made them set out for Asia Minor.

But, whilst every thing abroad was glorious and happy for Philip, he found the utmost uneasiness at home; division and trouble reigning in every part of his family. The ill temper of Olympias, who was naturally jealous, choleric, and vindictive, raised dissensions perpetually in it, which made Philip almost out of love with life. Not to mention, that, as he himself had defiled the marriage-bed, it is said, that his consort had repaid his infidelity in kind. But whether he had a just subject of complaint, or whether it was from fickleness and inconstancy, it is certain he proceeded so far as to divorce her. Alexander who had been disgusted upon several other accounts, was highly offended at this treatment of his mother.

Philip, after divorcing Olympias, married Cleopatra, niece to Attalus, a very young lady, whose beauty was so exquisite, that he could not resist its charms. In the midst of their rejoicings, upon occasion of the nuptials, and in the heat of wine, Attalus, who was uncle to the new queen by the mother's side, took into his head to say, that the Macedonians ought to beseech the gods to give them a lawful successor to their king. Upon this Alexander, who was naturally choleric, exasperated at such an insult, cried out, "Wretch, dost thou then take me for a bastard ?" and at the same time flung the cup at his head. Attalus returned the compliment, upon which the quarrel grew warmer. Philip, who sat at another table, was very much offended to see the feast interrupted in this manner; and, not recollecting that he was lame, drew his sword, and ran directly at his son. Happily the father fell, so that the guests had an opportunity of stepping in between them. The greatest difficulty was to keep Alexander from rushing upon his ruin. Exasperated at a succession of such heinous affronts, in spite of all the guests could say concerning the duty he owed Phi

a Diod. 1. xvi. p. 479.

b Plut. in Alex. p. 669.