Prussian minister of religion (Falk since 1872) retired; his successor, Von Puttkamer (July 14).

Russia assuming a hostile attitude, and attempting to form an alliance with France against Germany,

Sept. 21-24. Bismarck visited Vienna, and a defensive alliance was concluded between Prussia and Austria.

Oct. 1. The new system of jurisprudence for the entire German empire went in force (supreme court in Leipzig).

1880. The boldness of the Nihilists in Russia continuing to increase Feb. in spite of the severe measures of the government (three desperate attempts upon the life of Alexander II. inside of ten months), general Loris-Melikoff was clothed with a sort of dictatorial power, but endeavored to prevent the imminent dangers by concessions.

Conflict with the papacy in regard to ecclesiastical orders and new laws relating to education in France, and still more sharply in Belgium (liberal ministry of Frère Orban since 1878).

In Prussia, all negotiations with the papacy proving vain, certain limitations of the existing laws relating to the church (p. 520) were introduced as an attempt to reach the desired result by political legislation.

The resolutions of the congress of Berlin had never been completely carried into execution, in part because of the resistance of the Albanian league (secretly aided by the Porte ?) to the cessions made to Montenegro, and also because the negotiations relative to a surrender of territory to Greece had been without result. Hence the June 16-July 1. Conference of Berlin

was called, which delivered to the Porte certain distinct propositions in regard to these questions (Thessaly and Epirus with Janina to be given to Greece), which should eventually be enforced by armed interference. The Porte still delaying, a squadron of vessels of all the great powers assembled at Ragusa (Sept.). This demonstration produced the

Nov. Surrender of Dulcigno and territory to Montenegro.

1881, March 13. Alexander II. murdered in St. Petersburg. He was succeeded by his son,

1881-x. Alexander III.

Roumania made a kingdom.

March-April. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople. The Porte decided to carry out the surrender of territory to Greece, though to a somewhat smaller extent than was indicated by the Berlin conference.

Sept. 8. Meeting of William I. of Germany and Alexander III. of Russia at Danzig.

1882. Disturbances in southern Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. Jan. Dispatch of Austrian troops to these points.

Jan. 7. Excitement created in Prussia by the publication of a royal rescript, attacking the theory of responsible ministers, and announcing that all persons in government service were expected to support the government at elections.

1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin de liste; minority representation in districts returning five or more deputies.

Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established in the university of Prague.

Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive measures, undaunted activity of the nihilists.

March 6. Servia made a kingdom; prince Milan king as Milan I. March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia by the Austrians.

Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag to come to terms with Rome and the clerical party (autumn). Approaching end of the Kulturkampf.

April 10. Retirement of Gortschakoff, minister of foreign affairs in Russia; he was succeeded by De Giers; this change, regarded as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehensions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic invectives of Skobeleff in Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, † July 7). May 22. Opening of the St. Gothard railroad across the Alps. (Begun 1872, tunnel 9 miles long.)

June 2. Death of Giuseppe Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice; conspirator in 1833; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835; defense of Rome, 1849; in North America, 1854; service against Austria, 1859, 1860; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 1867; participation in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870, 1871; member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875).

Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in the German Reichstag.

1882, June 21. Expiration of the Storthing in Norway. Violent royal speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. Sept. Anti-Jewish riots, especially at Pressburg (Sept. 27-30). Sept.-Nov. New elections in Norway. Return of an increased radical majority.

§ 3. FRANCE.
1815- -X.

1814 (1815)-1824. Louis XVIII.

First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal constitution (charte constitutionelle), June 4, 1814: hereditary monarchy; two chambers (peers nominated by the king, lower house elected by the people); freedom of the press; religious liberty; responsible ministers; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483. Fall of Napoleon.

1815, July 8. Second restoration. 1815, Sept. 25-1818, Dec. 29. Ministry of the duke of Richelieu. Nov. 20. Second peace of Paris (p. 485).

An ultra-royalist chamber (chambre introuvable; compare the "Cavalier" parliament of Charles II. of England, p. 378). La terreur blanche. Parties: court (Richelieu), advocating return to the old monarchy; legitimists (Decazes); doctrinaires (Guizot), advocates of constitutional monarchy with strong administration; liberals (independents, Périer, Lafayette); Bonapartists; republicans. Gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bourgeoisie).

Ministry of Dessoles-Decazes (1818, Dec. 29-1819, Nov.); of Decazes (1819, Nov. 10-1820, Feb.).

1820, Feb. 13. Murder of the duke of Berry, the second nephew of Louis XVIII., by Louvel. Ultra-royalist ministry. Laws restricting freedom of the press and of elections.

Sept. 29. Birth of the duke of Bordeaux, posthumous son of the duke of Berry ; Henry V.;" Europe's child." Presenta

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tion of the castle of Chambord by national subscription.

1821, May 5. Death of Napoleon I. at St. Helena.

1821, Dec. 13-1828, Jan. 4. Ministry of Villèle (ultra-royalist). 1823. French intervention in Spain; capture of Madrid and Cadiz ; liberation of Ferdinand VII., by the duke of Angoulême. Cruel reaction. Numerous executions (Riego). Septennial election law (violation of the charter). New chamber of ultra-royalists (chambre retrouvée, 1824).

1824, Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII.

1824-1830. Charles X.

1825, March. Grant of a milliard ($200,000,000) to returned refugees as compensation for their confiscated estates.1

Growth of the liberal party: Collaud, Constant, Périer, Broglie,
Chateaubriand. Outcry against the Jesuits.

1827, April 30. National guard disbanded.

1828, Jan. Fall of the Villele ministry in consequence of the return of a liberal majority at the election.

1828, Jan. 4-1829, Aug. 8. Martignac ministry ("too liberal for the royalists, too reactionary for the liberals ").

1829, Aug.-1830, July. Polignac ministry; reactionary, ultra-royalist. "No more concessions!"

1830, March 18. Address of the 221, in reply to the king's speech; vote of want of confidence. Dissolution May 16.

July 5. Capture of Algiers by the French.

Reasons for the expedition : 1. An insult offered the French ambassadors by the Dey, Husseyn. 2. The desire of the French government to quiet the agitation and dissatisfaction which prevailed in France, by some outside success.

Algeria (Afrique Française) subjugated by a tedious war with the Arabs and Kabyls, constantly breaking out anew. Abdel-Kader (1827, captured by Lamoricière and the duke of Aumale, fourth son of

1 The ruined cavaliers in England got $3,000,000 in 1661.

Louis Philippe ; 1852, released and sent to Asia Minor by Louis Napoleon).

New elections. Return of an increased liberal majority; 202 of the 221 reëlected ("aide toi").

1830, July 27-29.

The July Revolution. The Three

Days of July. The Great Week.

Cause publication of the three (five) ordinances on July 26, professedly founded on article 14. 1. The recent elections declared illegal. 2. The electoral system arbitrarily changed so as to restrict the suffrage to rich land-owners. 3. Prohibition of the publication of newspapers and pamphlets without a royal permit. This violation of the charter produced a revolt in Paris July 27. Protests (Thiers, Mignet). Barricade fights. July 28, rising of the bourgeoisie; imperfect military preparations, bad leadership and care of the troops, who in part deserted, resulted in the victory of the populace. Capture of the Hôtel de Ville. July 29, capture of the Louvre. Retreat of the troops. Provisional government: Lafitte, Périer, Barrot. Lafayette commander of the national guard. Futile repeal of the ordinances. Duke of Orléans lieutenant general of France ("the charter henceforward to be a reality").

Charles X. († in Görz, in Styria, 1836), and his son, the duke of Angoulême, abdicated in favor of their grandson and nephew, the duke of Bordeaux (who subsequently called himself count of Chambord, p. 527). The claims of this pretender being set aside, the younger line of Bourbon (Orléans, see genealogical table, p. 528) was raised to the throne in the person of

1830-1848. Louis Philippe, the king of the French (le roi bourgeoise; monarchy of July). Alteration of the charter in a liberal spirit. Abolition of art. 14. Prohibition of the censure. The king to share the initiative with the chamber. Ministry of Broglie, Guizot, Lafayette (1830, Aug. 11-Nov.); of Lafitte (1830, Nov. 2-1831, March 13); of Casimir Périer (1831, Mar. 13-1832, May). Trial and condemnation of four ex-ministers of Charles X. Rebellion of the duchess of Berry (1832).

1832, Oct. 11-1836, Feb. Ministry of Thiers, Guizot, Broglie. Insurrection in Lyons (1834, April).

1835, July 28.

Fieschi's infernal machine.

By this attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe twelve persons were killed and forty wounded. It was followed by the adoption of laws limiting the freedom of the press (laws of September). Retirement of Guizot, Broglie (doctrinaires); ministry of Feb. 22, 1836 (Thiers, progressionists). Ministry of Sept. 6 (Molé, Guizot; Thiers out). 1836, Oct. 30. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I., see the

genealogical table, p. 466) made an adventurous attempt to get himself proclaimed emperor at Strasburg. He was captured without difficulty, his accomplices brought to trial, he himself sent to America by the French government on a ship of war (with an annuity of 15,000 francs from Louis Philippe's privy purse).1

1 Guizot, Mémoires, vol. iv. chap. 24.