THE NORMAN POETS OF ENGLAND. The first literary productions which call for at tention after the Conquest, are a class which may be considered as in a great measure foreign to the country and its language. Before the invasion of England by William, poetical literature had begun to be cultivated in France with considerable marks of spirit and taste. The language, which from its origin was named Romane (lingua Romana),* was separated into two great divisions, that of the south, which is represented popularly by the Provençal, and that of the north, which was subdivided into French and Anglo-Norman, the latter dialect being that chiefly confined to our island. The poets of the south were called in their dialect trobadores, or troubadours, and those of the north were distinguished by the same title, written in their language trouveres. In Provence, there arose a series of elegant versifiers, who employed their talents in composing romantic and complimentary poems, full of warlike and amatory sentiment, which many of them made a business of reciting before assemblages of the great. Norman poets, writing with more plainness and simplicity, were celebrated even before those of Provençe; and one, named Taillefer, was the first man to break the English ranks at the battle of Hastings. From the preference of the Norman kings of England for the poets of their own country, and the general depression of Anglo-Saxon, it results that the distinguished literary names of the first two centuries after the Conquest are those of NORMAN POETS, men who were as frequently natives of France as of England. Philippe de Thaun, author of treatises on popular science in verse; Thorold, who wrote the fine romance of Roland; Samson de Nanteuil, who translated the proverbs of Solomon into French verse; Geoffroi Gaimar, author of a chronicle of the Anglo-Saxon kings; and David, a trouveere of considerable eminence, whose works are lost, were the most noted predecessors of one of much greater celebrity, named Maistre WACE, a native of Jersey. About 1160, Wace wrote, in his native French, a narrative poem entitled Le Brut D'Angleterre (Brutus of England). The chief hero was an imaginary son of Æneas of Troy, who was represented as having founded the state of Britain many centuries before the Christian era. This was no creation of the fancy of the Norman poet. He only translated a serious history, written a few years before in Latin by a monk named GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH, in which the affairs of Britain were traced with all possible gravity through a series of imaginary kings, beginning with Brutus of Troy, and ending with Cadwallader, who was said to have lived in the year 689 of the Christian era. This history is a very remarkable work, on account of its origin, and its effects on subsequent literature. The Britons, settled in Wales, Cornwall, and Bretagne, were distinguished at this time on account of the numberless fanciful and fabulous legends which they possessed-a traditionary kind of literature resembling that which has since been found amongst the kindred people of the Scottish Highlands. For centuries past, Europe had been supplied with tale and fable from the teeming fountain of Bretagne, as it now is with music from Italy, and metaphysics from Germany. Walter Calenius, archdean of Oxford, collected some of these of a professedly his torical kind relating to England, and communicated them to Geoffrey, by whom they were put into the form of a regular historical work, and introduced for the first time to the learned world, as far as a learned world then existed. As little else than a bundle of incredible stories, some of which may be slightly founded on fact, this production is of small worth; but it supplied a ground for Wace's poem, and proved an unfailing resource for the writers of romantic narrative for the ensuing two centuries; nor even in a later age was its influence exhausted; for from it Shakspeare drew the story of Lear, and Sackville that of Ferrex and Porrex, while Drayton reproduces much of it in his Polyolbion, and it has given occasion to many allusions in the poems of Milton and others.* Maistre Wace also composed a History of the Normans, under the title of the Roman de Rou, that is, the Romance of Rollo, first Duke of Normandy, and some other works. Henry II., from admiration of his writings, bestowed upon him a canonry in the cathedral of Bayeux. Benoit, a contemporary of Wace, and author of a History of the Dukes of Normandy; and Guernes, an ecclesiastic of Pont St Maxence, in Picardy, who wrote a metrical life of Thomas à Becket, are the other two Norman poets of most eminence whose genius or whose writings can be connected with the history of English literature. These writers composed most frequently in rhymed couplets, each line containing eight syllables.† COMMENCEMENT OF THE PRESENT FORM OF ENGLISH. Of the century following the Conquest, the only other compositions that have come down to us as the production of individuals living in, or connected * Ellis's Metrical Romances. † Ellis's Specimens, i., 35-59. A short passage from Wace's description of the ceremonies and sports presumed to have taken place at King Arthur's coronation, will give an idea of the * Any book written in this tongue was cited as the livre Romans (liber Romanus), and most frequently as simply the Romans: as a great portion of these were works of fiction, the term has since given rise to the word now in general use, romance. writings of the Norman poets. It is extracted from Mr Ellis's Quant li rois leva del mangier, De la cité es champs issirent; Et les incaux chevalx monstrer: Tost li tornost l'oil ou la face. A ceulx qui d'autres terres estoient, 1 To amuse themselves. 2 To just. 3 Fleet (isnel). To leap with, England, are works written in Latin by learned ecclesiastics, the principal of whom were John of Salisbury, Peter of Blois, Joseph of Exeter, and GEOFFREY of MONMOUTH, the last being the author [Extract from the Saxon Chronicle, 1154.] On this yær wærd the King Stephen ded, and bebyried there his wif and his sune wæron bebyried æt of the History of England just alluded to, which is supposed to have been written about the year 1138. About 1154, according to Dr Johnson, 'the Saxon began to take a form in which the beginning of the present English may plainly be discovered.' It does not, as already hinted, contain many Norman words, but its grammatical structure is considerably altered. There is a metrical Saxon or English translation, by one LAYAMON, a priest of Ernely, on the Severn, from the Brut d'Angleterre of Wace. Its date is not ascertained; but if it be, as surmised by some writers, a composition of the latter part of the twelfth century, we must consider it as throwing a valuable light on the history of our language at perhaps the most important period of its existence. A specimen, in which the passage already given from Wace is translated, is presented in the sequel. With reference to a larger extract given by Mr Ellis, of which the other is a portion, that gentleman remarks-'As it does not contain any word which we are under the necessity of referring to a French origin, we cannot but consider it as simple and unmixed, though very barbarous, Saxon. At the same time,' he continues, 'the orthography of this manuscript, in which we see, for the first time, the admission of the soft g, together with the Saxon z, as well as some other peculiarities, seems to prove that the pronunciation of our language had already undergone a considerable change. Indeed, the whole style of this composition, which is broken into a series of short unconnected sentences, and in which the construction is as plain and artless as possible, and perfectly free from inversions, appears to indicate that little more than the substitution of a few French for the present Saxon words was now necessary to produce a resemblance to that Anglo-Norman, or English, of which we possess a few specimens, supposed to have been written in the early part of the thirteenth century. Layamon's versification is also no less remarkable than his language. Sometimes he seems anxious to imitate the rhymes, and to adopt the regular number of syllables, which he had observed in his original; at other times he disregards both, either because he did not consider the laws of metre, or the consonance of final sounds, as essential to the gratification of his readers; or because he was unable to adapt them throughout so long a work, from the want of models in his native language on which to form his style. The latter is perhaps the most probable supposition; but, at all events, it is apparent that the recurrence of his rhymes is much too frequent to be the result of chance; so that, upon the whole, it seems reasonable to infer, that Layamon's work was composed at, or very near, the period when the Saxons and Normans in this country began to unite into one nation, and to adopt a common language.' SPECIMENS OF ANGLO-SAXON AND ENGLISH We have already seen short specimens of the Anglo-Saxon prose and verse of the period prior to the Conquest. Perhaps the best means of making clear the transition of the language into its present form, is to present a continuation of these specimens, extending between the time of the Conquest and the reign of Edward L. It is not to be expected that these specimens will be of much use to the reader, on account of the ideas which they convey; but, considered merely as objects, or as pictures, they will not be without their effect in illustrating the history of our literature. Tauresfeld. That ministre hi makiden. Tha the king was ded, tha was the eorl beionde sæ. And ne durste nan man don other bute god for the micel eie of him. Tha he to Engleland come, tha was he under fangen mid micel wortscipe; and to king bletcæd in Lundine, on the Sunnen dæi beforen mid-winter-dæi. Literally translated thus:-'A. D. 1154. In this year was the King Stephen dead, and buried where his wife and his son were buried, at Touresfield. That minister they made. When the king was dead, then was the earl beyond sea. And not durst no man do other but good for the great awe of him. When he to England came, then was he received with great worship; and to king consecrated in London, on the Sunday before mid-winter-day (Christmas day).' [Extract from the account of the Proceedings at Arthur's Coronation, given by Layamon, in his translation of Wace, executed about 1180.] * Tha the kingt igeten1 hafde a word synonymous with the French on. 16 Gave him givings, gifts. Alle tha quenel The icumen weoren there, Leoneden geond walles, He gef seolver, he gæf gold, [Extract from a Charter of Henry III., A. D. 1258, in the common language of the time.] Henry, thurg Godes fultome, King on Engleneloande, Lhoaverd on Yrloand, Duk on Norman, on Acquitain, Earl on Anjou, send I greting, to alle hise holde, ilærde and ilewede on Huntindonnschiere. Thæt witen ge wel alle, that we willen and unnen, thæt ure rædesmen alle other the moare del of heom, thæt beoth ichosen thurg us and thurg thæt loandes-folk on ure kineriche, habbith idon, and schullen don in the worthnes of God, and ure treowthe, for the freme of the loande, thurg the besigte of than toforen iseide rædesmen, &c. Literal translation :-'Henry, through God's support, King of England, Lord of Ireland, Duke of Normandy, of Acquitain, Earl of Anjou, sends greeting to all his subjects, learned and unlearned, of Huntingdonshire. This know ye well all, that we will and grant, what our counsellors all, or the more part of them, that be chosen through us and through the land-folk of our kingdom, have done, and shall do, to the honour of God, and our allegiance, for the good of the land, through the determination of the beforesaid counsellors, &c. THE RHYMING CHRONICLERS. Layamon may be regarded as the first of a series of writers who, about the end of the thirteenth century, began to be conspicuous in our literary history, which usually recognises them under the general appellation of the RHYMING CHRONICLERS. The first, at a considerable interval after Layamon, was a monk of Gloucester Abbey, usually called from that circumstance ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, and who lived during the reigns of Henry III. and Edward L. He wrote, in long rhymed lines (Alexandrines), a history of England from the imaginary Brutus to his own time, using chiefly as his authority the Latin history by Geoffrey of Monmouth, of which Wace and Layamon had already given Nor man French and Saxon versions.* The work is described by Mr Warton as destitute of art and imagination, and giving to the fabulous history, in many parts, a less poetical air than it bears in Geoffrey's prose. The language is full of Saxon peculiarities, which might partly be the result of his living in so remote a province as Gloucestershire. Another critic acknowledges that, though cold and prosaic, Robert is not deficient in the valuable talent of arresting the attention. 'The orations with 1. All the queens who were come to the festival, and all the which he occasionally diversifies the thread of his story, are, in general, appropriate and dramatic, and not only prove his good sense, but exhibit no unfavourable specimens of his eloquence. In his description of the first crusade, he seems to change his usual character, and becomes not only entertaining, but even animated.'* Of the language of Robert's Chronicle, the following is a specimen, in its original spelling:Engelond ys a wel god lond, ich wene of eche lond best, Y-set in the ende of the world, as al in the west. gyle Of folc of the selve lond, as me hath y-seye wyle. From south to north he ys long eighte hondred myle. This is, of course, nearly unintelligible to all except antiquarian readers, and it is therefore judged proper, in other specimens, to adopt, as far as possible, a modern orthography. [The Muster for the First Crusade.] A good pope was thilk time at Rome, that hecht Urban, That preached of the creyserie, and creysed mony man. Therefore he send preachers thorough all Christendom, And himself a-this-side the mounts and to France come; And preached so fast, and with so great wisdom, Ne young folk [that] feeble were, the while the voyage y-last. So that Robert Curthose thitherward his heart cast, And, among other good knights, ne thought not be the last. He wends here to Englond for the creyserie, To wend with to the holy lond, and that was some deal stark. * * And Robert's sister Curthose espoused had to wive. And Tancred his nephew, and the bishop also Of Scotlond and of Greece, of Rome and Aquitain. * * ladies, leaned over the walls to behold the nobles there, and 2 This lasted three days, such games and such plays. * Robert's Chronicle, from a particular allusion, is supposed to have been written, at least in part, after 1297. * Ellis. 1 Was called. Passed the mountains-namely, the Alps, a Was quickly taken up. ▲ Take. 5 Since never more. 6 Even women did not remain. 7 Towed, in pledge, in pawn. 8 With. 9 Beyond reckoning. RHYMING CHRONICLERS. [The Siege of Antioch.] ENGLISH LITERATURE. Ac the Christians cried all on God, and good earnest nome, Tho wend forth this company, with mony a noble And, thorough the grace of Jesus Christ, the Paynims man, And won Tars with strength, and syth Toxan. And to yrene brig from thannen! they wend, And our lord at last to Antioch them send, That in the beginning of the lond of Syrie is. And they within again' them stalwartly cast. overcome; And the Christian wend again, mid the prey that they nome. In the month of Feverer the Saracens eftsoon And went toward Antioch, to help their kind blood, Of the thrid the good Raymond; the ferth the good man For to help their fellows, whan they were were.6 they overcome, And slew to ground here and there, and the other flew * anon, * * ** So that at a narrow brig there adrent1 mony one. rear; And held them all overcome. The Christians anon come, And slew all that they found, but which so might flee, He was William's son bastard, as I have i-said ere Thick man he was enow, but he nas well long, This Christian and this Saracens to-gather them soon 'By the uprising of God, Robelin, me shall i-see, And as stalwart men to-gather fast set, And smote ane up the helin, and such a stroke himgave, The Duke Godfrey all so good on the shouldren smote one, And forclave him all that body to the saddle anon. And they, for the wonder case, in dread fell anon. In beginning of Lent this battle was y-do, 8 3 Shrews, cursed men. 6 Weary. 9 So soon as they were prepared. 1 Thence. 4 Six parties. 7 Fresh. Took counsel. 5 Then were there no more. 8 Foes. Never yet man ne might, in Christendom, ne in Paynim, In battle him bring adown of his horse none time. In the list of Rhyming Chroniclers, Robert of Gloucester is succeeded by ROBERT MANNING, a Gilbertine canon in the monastery of Brunne or Bourne, Brunne), who flourished in the latter part of the in Lincolnshire (therefore usually called Robert de II. He translated, under the name of a Handling of reign of Edward I., and throughout that of Edward Sins, a French book, entitled Manuel des Pêches, the composition of William de Wadington, in which the seven deadly sins are illustrated by legendary nicle of England, which had been written by Peter stories. He afterwards translated a French chrode Langtoft, a contemporary of his own, and an ning has been characterised as an industrious, and, Augustine canon of Bridlington in Yorkshire. Manfor the time, an elegant writer, possessing, in particular, a great command of rhymes. The verse adopted in his chronicle is shorter than that of the Gloucester monk, making an approach to the octoone of the most spirited passages, in reduced spellsyllabic stanza of modern times. The following is ing : [The interview of Vortigern with Rowen, the beautiful Daughter of Hengist.] knight. Hengist that day did his might, And gave the king, syne him kissed. Upon that maiden his heart was cast; He loved peace at his might; Through muris, hills, and vallies, [Praise of Good Women.] Nothing is to man so dear ENGLISH METRICAL ROMANCES. HE rise of Romantic Fiction in Europe has been traced to the most opposite quarters; namely, to the Arabians and to the Scandinavians. It has also been disputed, whether a politer kind of poetical literature was first cultivated in Normandy or in Provence. Without entering into these perplex ing questions, it may be enough to state, that romantic fiction appears to have been cultivated from the eleventh century downwards, both by the troubadours of Provence and by the Norman poets, of whom some account has already been given. As also already hinted, a class of persons had arisen, named Joculators, Jongleurs, or Minstrels, whose business it was to wander about from one mansion to another, recit [Fabulous Account of the first Highways in England.] ing either their own compositions, or those of other Belin well held his honour, And wisely was good governor. 1 Well advanced in convivialities. Of good appearance. This phrase is still used in Scotland. persons, with the accompaniment of the harp. The histories and chronicles, already spoken of, partook largely of the character of these romantic tales, and were hawked about in the same manner. Brutus, the supposed son of Æneas of Troy, and who is described in those histories as the founder of the English state, was as much a hero of romance 8 Greeted. • Interpreter. 4 Lord. 7 Esteems. • As pleased her. 12 Pleased. 10 Went. 13 Pagan. Had no knowledge. 8 Taught him. 11 Many times. 14 According to Pagan law. 1 Went. 4 Know. 2 Breadthways. 3 Broke, destroyed. |