CHAPTER IV. Two General Appendices to Tradition, viz., the Arts of THERE remain two general appendages to the doctrine of delivery; the one relating to criticism, the other to schoollearning. For as the principal part of traditive prudence turns upon the writing; so its relative turns upon the reading of books. Now reading is either regulated by the assistance of a master, or left to every one's private industry; but both depend upon criticism and school-learning. Criticism regards, first, the exact correcting and publishing of approved authors; whereby the honour of such authors is preserved, and the necessary assistance afforded to the reader. Yet the misapplied labours and industry of some have in this respect proved highly prejudicial to learning; for many critics have a way, when they fall upon anything they do not understand, of immediately supposing a fault in the copy. Thus, in that passage of Tacitus, where a certain colony pleads a right of protection in the senate, Tacitus tells us they were not favourably heard; so that the ambassadors distrusting their cause, endeavoured to procure the favour of Titus Vinius by a present, and succeeded; upon which Tacitus has these words: "Tum dignitas et antiquitas coloniæ valuit:" "Then the honour and antiquity of the colony had weight," in allusion to the sum received. But a considerable critic here expunges "tum," and substitutes "tantùm," which quite corrupts the sense. And from this ill practice of the critics, it happens that the most corrected copies are often the least correct. And to say the truth, unless a critic tione Rhetoricæ;" and still more by his "Institutiones Oratoriæ." See also Wolfgang; Schoensleder's "Apparatus Eloquentiæ;" "Tesmari Exercitationes Rhetoricæ," &c. Several French authors have likewise cultivated this subject; particularly Rapin, in his "Réflexions sur l'Eloquence;" Bohour, in his "Manière de bien Penser dans les Ouvrages de l'Esprit," and his "Pensées Ingénieuses;" Father Lamy, in his "Art de Parler." See also M. Cassander's French translation of Aristotle's Rhetorics; the anonymous pieces, entitled, "L'Art de Penser," and "L'Art de Persuader;" Le Clerc's "Historia Rhetoricæ," in his "Ars Critica ;" and "Stollius de Arte Rhetorica," in his "Introductio in Historiam Literariam." Shaw. Hist. b. i. c. 66. is well acquainted with the sciences treated in the books he publishes, his diligence will be attended with danger. A second thing belonging to criticism is the explanation and illustration of authors, comments, notes, collections, &c. But here an ill custom has prevailed among the critics of skipping over the obscure passages, and expatiating upon such as are sufficiently clear, as if their design were not so much to illustrate their author, as to take all occasions of showing their own learning and reading. It were therefore to be wished, that every original writer who treats an obscure or noble subject, would add his own explanations to his own work, so as to keep the text continued and unbroken by digressions or illustrations, and thus prevent any wrong interpretation by the notes of others. Thirdly, there belongs to criticism the thing from whence its name is derived; viz., a certain concise judgment or censure of the authors published, and a comparison of them with other writers who have treated the same subject. Whence the student may be directed in the choice of his books, and come the better prepared to their perusal; and this seems to be the ultimate office of the critic, and has indeed been honoured by some greater men in our age than critics are usually thought. For the doctrine of school-learning, it were the shortest way to refer it to the Jesuits, who, in point of usefulness, have herein excelled; yet we will lay down a few admonitions about it. We highly approve the education of youth in colleges, and not wholly in private houses or schools. For in colleges, there is not only a greater emulation of the youth among their equals, but the teachers have a venerable aspect and gravity, which greatly conduces towards insinuating a modest behaviour, and the forming of tender minds from the first, according to such examples; and besides these, there are many other advantages of a collegiate education. But for the order and manner of discipline, it is of capital use to avoid too concise methods and too hasty an opinion of learning, which give a pertness to the mind, and rather make a show of improvement than procure it. But excursions of genius are to be somewhat favoured; so that if a scholar perform his usual exercises, he may be suffered b See Osborn's Advice to a Son. to steal time for other things whereto he is more inclined. It must also be carefully noted, though it has, perhaps, hitherto escaped observation, that there are two correspondent ways of enuring, exercising, and preparing the genius; the one beginning with the easier, leads gradually on to more difficult things; and the other, commanding and imposing such as are the harder at first; so that when these are obtained, the easier may be more agreeably despatched. For it is one method to begin swimming with bladders, and another to begin dancing with loaded shoes. Nor is it easy to see how much a prudent intermixture of these two ways contributes to improve the faculties both of body and mind. Again, the suiting of studies to the genius is of singular use; which masters should duly attend to, that the parent may thence consider what kind of life the child is fittest for. And further, it must be carefully observed, not only that every one makes much greater progress in those things whereto he is naturally inclined, but also, that there are certain remedies in a proper choice of studies for particular indispositions of mind. For example, inattention and a volatility of genius may be remedied by mathematics, wherein, if the mind wander ever so little, the whole demonstration must be begun anew. Exercises, also, are of great efficacy in teaching, but few have observed that these should not only be prudently appointed, but prudently changed. For, as Cicero well remarks, "faults as well as faculties are generally exercised in exercises;" whence a bad habit is sometimes acquired and insinuated together with a good one. therefore safer that exercises should be intermitted, and now and then repeated, than always continued and followed. These things, indeed, may at first sight appear light and trivial, yet they are highly effectual and advantageous. For as the great increase of the Roman empire has been justly attributed to the virtue and prudence of those six rulers, who had, as it were, the tuition of it in its youth, so proper discipline, in tender years, has such a power, though latent and unobserved, as neither time nor future labour can any way subdue in our riper age. It also deserves to be remarked, that even ordinary talents in great men, used on great occasions, may sometimes produce remarkable effects. And of this we will give an eminent instance, the rather because the It is Jesuits judiciously retain the discipline among them. And though the thing itself be disreputable in the profession of it, yet it is excellent as a discipline; we mean the action of the theatre, which strengthens the memory, regulates the tone of the voice and the efficacy of pronunciation; gracefully composes the countenance and the gesture; procures a becoming degree of assurance; and lastly, accustoms youth to the eye of men. The example we borrow from Tacitus, of one Vibulenus, once a player, but afterwards a soldier in the Pannonian army. This fellow, upon the death of Augustus, raised a mutiny; so that Blesus, the lieutenant, committed some of the mutineers; but the soldiers broke open the prison and released them. Upon which, Vibulenus thus harangued the army: "You," says he, "have restored light and life to these poor innocents; but who gives back life to my brother, or my brother to me? He was sent to you from the German army for a common good, and that man murdered him last night, by the hands of his gladiators, whom he keeps about him to murder the soldiers. Answer, Blesus, where hast thou thrown his corpse? Even enemies refuse not the right of burial. When I shall, with tears and embraces, have performed my duty to him, command me also to death; but let our fellow-soldiers bury us, who are murdered only for our love to the legions."c With which words, he raised such a storm of consternation and revenge in the army, that unless the thing had presently appeared to be all a fiction, and that the fellow never had a brother, the soldiers might have murdered their leader; but he acted the whole as a part upon the stage. And thus much for the logical sciences. We now come to that portion of our treatise which we have allotted to rational knowledge. Let no one, however, think that we hold the received division of the sciences of small account, because we have wandered out of the beaten paths. In so digressing we have been influenced by a twofold necessity, — First, to unite two methods, which both in their end and nature are altogether different, viz., the ranging in the same class those things which are naturally related to each other, and to throw into one heap all those things which are likely to be called immediately • Annal. i. 22. into use. Thus, as a secretary of a prince or of some civil department ranges his papers according to their distinct heads,-treaties, instructions, foreign and domestic letters, -each occupying a separate corner of his study, and yet does not fail to collect in some particular cabinet those papers he is likely to use together, so in this general cabinet of knowledge we have selected our divisions according to the nature of things themselves; but if any particular science required to be treated at length, we have followed those divisions which are most conformable to use and practice. The second necessity arose from supplying the addenda to the sciences, and reducing them to an entire body, which completely changed the old boundaries. For, say that the existing arts are fifteen in number, and that the deficiencies increase the number to twenty, as the parts of fifteen are not the parts of twenty, two, four, and three being prime numbers in each, it is plain that a new division was forced upon us. SEVENTH BOOK. CHAPTER I. Ethics divided into the Doctrine of Models and the Georgics (Culture) of the Mind. Division of Models into the Absolute and Comparative Good. Absolute Good divided into Personal and National. WE next, excellent King, proceed to ethics, which has the human will for its subject. Reason governs the will, but apparent good seduces it: its motives are the affections, and its ministers the organs and voluntary motions. It is of this doctrine that Solomon says, "Keep thy heart with all diligence, a a for out of it are the actions of life." The writers upon this science appear like writing-masters, who lay before their scholars a number of beautiful copies, but give them no directions how to guide their pen or shape their letters; for so the writers upon ethics have given us shining draughts, descriptions, and exact images of goodness, virtue, duties, happiness, &c., as the true objects and scope of the human • Prov. iv. 23. |