quæro servosne an liberos (Rosc. Am. 27). I ask whether slaves or free. [Here servos aut liberos would mean, were there any, either slaves or free.]

REMARK.-In direct questions, annon is more frequently found in the alternative; in indirect, necne.

a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: as,

Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey?

sunt hæc tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), are these your words or not?

b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied; and an (anne) alone asks a question—usually with indignation or surprise: as,

an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), what! do you think those men wretched?

c. The second member may be omitted, when utrum asks a question to which there is no alternative: as,

utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quem. among the noblest citizens, whom, &c.

...

(Flacc. 19), is he

d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:

3. Question and Answer. As there is no word in Latin meaning simply yes or no, in answering a question the verb is generally repeated: as,

valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).

eratne tecum, was he with you? non erat, no (he was not).

a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in answer to a direct question: thus immo (nay but), vero (in truth), or etiam (even so) may have the meaning of yes; and non (not), or minime (least-of-all), of no.

b. In the answer to an alternative question, one member of the alternative must be repeated: as,

tune an frater erat, was it you or your brother?

ego [eram], it was I.

72. PARTICIPLES.

The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an adjective; but has a partial distinction of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb.

1. Distinctions of Tense. The Present participle denotes the action as not completed; the Perfect as completed; the Future as still to take place.

a. Present. The Present participle has several of the irregular uses of the present indicative (compare § 58, 2): as,

quærenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind (cf. ib. a).

C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), he resisted Flaminius while attempting to divide, &c. (cf. b). iens in Pompeianum bene mane hæc scripsi (Att. iv. 9), I write this when about going to my place at Pompeii (cf. c).

Hence it is used in late writers to denote purpose.

b. Perfect. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers: as,

cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed, &c.

iratus dixisti (Mur. 30), you spoke in a passion.

oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices. insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing ambuscade. imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command. ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight.

rem incredibilem rati (Sall. C. 48), thinking it incredible.

c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually supplied by a clause with dum or cum; rarely by the participle in dus: as,

Dic, hospes, Sparta, nos te hic vidisse jacentes,

Dum sanctis patriæ legibus obsequimur.

Tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that we lie here obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek πειθόμενοι.]

crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire [compare note under § 73].

2. Adjective use. The present and perfect participles are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives: as,

cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 5), a view at once most ancient and approved.

signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), signs hardly ever deceitful.

auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), they use forced auspices.

a. Thus they are used, like adjectives, as nouns: as,

sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the selfindulgent, and slaves to the body.

recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. 1), right deeds ought to be like in value.

male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got, ill spent. consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health. b. So, also, they are connected with nouns by esse and similar verbs: as,

videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something.

Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. 1), all Gaul is divided. locus qui nunc sæptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed.

c. From this adjective use arise the compound tenses of the passive, the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as,

interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit., he is havingbeen-killed [i.e., already slain].

d. In the best writers (as Cicero) this participle, when used with the tenses of completed action, retains its proper force; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or fui) are often used indiscriminately: as,

[leges] cum quæ latæ sunt tum vero quæ promulgatæ fuerunt (Sest. 25), the laws, both those which were proposed, and those which were published. [The proposal of the laws was a single act: hence latæ sunt is a pure perfect. The publishing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by promulgatæ, and fuerunt is the pure perfect.]

arma quæ fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 34), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt (Off. i. 17): the difference between this and the preceding is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective.]

3. Predicate use. The Present and Perfect participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause

would be used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic, manner, circumstance: as,

vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. 1), I fear it may be a dishonor [to me] when beginning to speak.

salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored a safety which we did not hope.

nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), no one would have disbelieved him when he denied.

ᎡᎬᎷᎪᎡᏦ . This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (see § 54, 10, b and Note). A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle; and a participle with a negative expresses the same idea which in English is given by without: as,

imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v. 15), while our men were not looking.

miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), it is wretched to vex one's self without effecting anything.

instructos ordines in locum æquum deducit (Sall. C. 59), he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground.

ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry them over and put them to death.

a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea (compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek: G. 280): as,

ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or building.

illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt; vos vitam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), they did not endure the infringement of the citizens' liberty; will you disregard the destruction of their life?

So with opus: as,

opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), there is need of laying in provision.

maturato opus est (Livy viii. 13), there is no need of haste. [Here there is no noun, as the verb is used impersonally.] b. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active: as,

fidem quem habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4), my fidelity, which they have proved and long known.

(Hence the perfect with have in modern languages.)

c. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or the like (also with volo where esse may be understood, cf. § 70, 3, b), expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb: as,

præfectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many discharged their officers.

hic transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), he will get it all done. me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), I wish to be excused.

d. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly (after facio, induco, and the like, used of authors, and after verbs of sense): as, Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 11), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.

4. Future Participle. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by later writers.

a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a periphrastic conjugation (see § 40, a): as,

morere, Diagora, non enim in cælum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 46), die, for you are not likely to go to heaven. conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si

...

(Div. i. 15), that cham

ber where he would have staid if, &c. sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), the young man hopes to live long (§ 67, 1).

neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20), and seemed unlikely ever to seek the consulship.

By later writers it is also used in simple agreement to express likelihood or purpose, or even an apodosis: as,

cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. 1), when a lion rushed on to attack the king.

rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he returned to try the chances of war anew.

ausus est rem plus famæ habituram (Liv. ii. 10), he dared a thing which would have more repute.

[See also examples in § 59, 1, b.]

b. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 59, 3, e).

5. Gerundive. The Gerundive, in its participial or adjective use, denotes necessity or propriety.

a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun: as,

fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a brave man, and worthy to be preserved.

b. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a second periphrastic conjugation (§ 40, b): as,

non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), will not the thing have to be agitated?