The archbishop, resisting the papal claim of provisor, refused to admit X.; and on his persisting in bis claim, put him in prison, where he was detained for a long period. On his release, he was named Vicar-general of Cardinal Mendoza at Siguença; but he gave up this preferment, and entered the Franciscan order in 1482. His reputation for piety and learning, led the queen, Isabella, to choose him, in 1492, for her confessor; and three years afterwards, to name him Archbishop of Toledo-a dignity which he refused to accept until he received an express command from the pope. Having yielded in the end, he continued as archbishop the life of mortification and austerity which he had practised in his monastery; and he applied to purposes of religion, charity, and public utility the whole of the princely revenues of his see. As confessor and confidential adviser of the queen, X., during the lifetime of Isabella, was the guiding spirit of Spanish affairs; and on her death in 1504, he held the balance between the parties of Ferdinand and Philip of Burgundy, husband of Joanna, the heiress of the crown. On the death of Philip in 1506, X. was appointed Regent, in consequence of the incapacity of Joanna and the absence of Ferdinand, and conducted the affairs of the kingdom through a most critical time with consummate skill and success. In 1507, he was created Cardinal; and in the following year, he organised, at his own expense, and himself accompanied as commander, the celebrated expedition, consisting of 10,000 foot and 4000 horse, for the conquest of Oran, on the African coast. Ferdinand died in January 1516, and on his deathbed named X. Regent of Spain till the arrival of his grandson Charles; and although the grandees had organised an opposition as well to himself as to the royal authority, X., by his prompt and able dispositions, overawed them into submission; and subsequently, by the same exercise of vigour and determination, quelled the incipient revolt of

Navarre. In order to the better consolidation of the royal authority in Spain, X. urged very strongly the speedy visit of Charles, who still lingered in his Flemish principality; but it was not till after the lapse of a year and a half, that the king decided on his journey; and meanwhile, the enemies of X. had so worked upon his jealousy and pride, that he took the ungracious and ungrateful course of dismissing his faithful, but, as he feared, too powerful X. had set out to meet the king, and although labouring under great infirmities, continued to prosecute his journey, when he was seized with a mortal illness at Branguillas, near Aranda de Duero, where he died, November 6, 1517.

servant.

As a statesman and administrator, the reputation of Cardinal X. is deservedly of the very highest. The social and political revolution which he effected in breaking down the feudal power of the nobles, has often been compared with the analogous change wrought in France by Richelieu. But the revolution of X. was, at least in its results, rather in the interest of the people than, like that of Cardinal Richelieu, of the crown; and while it freed the sovereign from the unworthy position of dependence on the nobility, it established

the municipalities and the communal representatives in the enjoyment of certain well-defined and undoubtedly substantial privileges and immunities. His munificence as a patron of religion, of letters, and of art, has been the theme of praise in every history of his time. The university of Alcalá de Henares, which he planned, organised, erected, and endowed, was a marvel of enlightened munificence in such an age, and may compare advantageously with even the most princely foundations of the most enlightened times. His Complutensian Polyglot (q. v.), besides being the first of its class, was, considering the resources of the period, perhaps the grandest in conception among the projects of its own order; and the perseverance with which, during the long period of fifteen years devoted to its preparation, he watched and directed its progress, is an evidence that it originated from a genuine love of sacred learning, rather than a passing impulse of literary enthusiasm. The cost of this gigantic undertaking amounted, on the whole, to 80,000 ducats. His expenditure on churches, hospitals, schools, convents, and other works of religion and benevolence, was on a scale of corresponding munificence. He maintained thirty poor persons daily at his own cost, and he regularly set apart one half of his income to the uses of charity. See Hefele's Der Cardinal Ximenes und die kirchlichen Zustände Spaniens am Ende des 15, und Anfange des 16 Jahrhunderts (Tübingen, 1851).

in the form of a white powder, insoluble in water, XYLOÏ'DIN is a substance which is precipitated alcohol, and ether, when water is freely added to a tion is not determined with positive certainty, but solution of starch in cold nitric acid. Its composiit is probably starch, C,H10010, in which either one or two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by a corresponding number of atoms of peroxide of nitrogen, No. According to Professor Miller, there is a substitution of two atoms, so that the formula representing xyloidin is CH(NO4)2010 It explodes when sharply struck, and burns with violence at 356°. By the action of reducing agents, it is again con

verted into starch.

XY'LOL (Gr. xylon, wood) is an oily aromatic fluid with a strong refractive power, and boiling at about 263°. Its composition is represented by the formula C16H10, and it is regarded as the hydride of a non-isolated radical, CH, to which the name Xylyl is given. Xylol, mixed with toluol, cumol, and cymol, is found amongst the oils which are separated from crude wood-spirit by the addition of

water.

XYLO'PHAGA (Gr. wood-eaters), a family of Coleoptera, of the section Tetramera, nearly resembling weevils, but differing from them in the want of a beak. They have short antennæ, thickened towards the tips, and sometimes leafy from the base. The species are numerous, and are arranged in many genera. They mostly live in wood, on which they feed, both in their perfect and larval states. Some of them are very destructive to trees and timber. See BARK BEETLE and SCOLYTUS. Some of the X. live in fungi, and feed on them.

301

THE last letter but one of the English alphabet, is derived from the Greek T (). It had no place in the earlier Latin alphabet, and only came into use by Roman writers in the time of Cicero in spelling words borrowed from the Greek. In the Greek of the classical age, (T) no longer retained its pristine power (Ital. u or Eng. oo), but had degenerated into a sound like the French u, or even nearer to i (ee); it could not therefore be represented by the Roman u or v, which had remained (and remains yet in modern Italian) undegenerated, and thus was appended to the Roman alphabet as a new character. Its use in native Latin words, as sylva for silva, satyra for satira, is an error of modern editors. Italian has no y, but uses i instead, as sinfonia, symphony. The other modern languages of Europe have not only retained it in spelling words of Greek origin, but some of them substitute it for i in native words, generally in a very capricious manner. German orthography has recently been purged of this abuse; and in Dutch, where it had always the sound of English i (ai), the double character ij is now written. In English, it is used to represent the semi-consonantal power of i or j (see I and J) in the beginning of a word and before another vowel, as yoke Lat. iugum or jugum : Ang.-Sax. iuc; young = Ang. Sax. iong Ger. jung. It has been suggested that the practice of writing y at the end of a word instead of i, while we replace it by i on adding a syllable (e. g., lovely, lovelier), may have arisen like the habit of giving a tail to the last unit of the Roman numerals (e. g., ij, iiij), in the wish to give a kind of finish to the word and please the eye. The would-be antique spelling y, y, for the, that, is a blunder, arising from mistaking the Ang.-Sax. þ| (=th) for a y.

=

YABLONOI' MOUNTAINS, a name that has long had a place in the geography of the north-east of Asia, designating a range of mountains which are found to have no existence, the locality in which they were supposed to be placed being an undulating plateau.

YACHT is a small vessel constructed so as best to insure strength, elegance, and speed, and exclusively employed for pleasure-sailing. Vessels of this sort were first constructed in this country in 1604, at which date a yacht was built by the king's master-shipwright for Henry, eldest son of James I. of England; the idea of such a vessel being taken from the Dutch, among whom they had been employed for some time previous. From this time, yachting, steadily patronised by royalty, became a favourite pastime of the nobility and gentry, and is now so general, that there are no fewer than 30 yacht clubs in the United Kingdom, possessing 1200-1300 yachts. This amusement is encouraged by government, mainly because it supplies an excellent training for seamen, who in time of war become available for the royal navy, while in time of peace they are no burden on the

national treasury; and accordingly, yachts are allowed to bear the ensign of the royal navy, sup. plemented by the special flag granted by the Admiralty to each club, and to refit and revictual in the royal dockyards. The oldest yacht club in the United Kingdom is the Royal Cork, which, under the title of the 'Water Club of Cork,' is known to have existed as early as 1720; and the next in order of seniority is the Royal Yacht Squadron, founded in June 1815, and having its headquarters at Cowes, Isle of Wight. The club which stands first as to the number of its members and yachts is the Royal Thames Yacht Club, which was founded in 1823, and has its head-quarters in London. Of the other clubs in this country, 3 belong to Scotland (2 to Glasgow, and 1 to Edinburgh), 4 to Ireland (1 to Queenstown, 1 to Kingstown, 2 to Dublin Bay), and the rest to England, being mostly located on the Thames, the channels between Southampton and the Isle of Wight, or along the north coast of Wales, from Liverpool to Holyhead. Half of these clubs have been founded since 1840. Yachting is gaining ground in foreign countries and in the British possessions, the United States ranking next to Great Britain and Ireland in the number and importance of her yacht clubs (the chief of which is the New York Yacht Club); and Holland, Belgium, France, Australia, Bermuda, Canada, and Russia have similar associations.

The principles adopted in the construction of yachts have fluctuated greatly, from the simple unpretending rig, small tonnage, and clumsy build of the early yachts of the Royal Cork Club, to the immense canvas area, larger size, and long narrow build of the yacht of the present time. The yacht of the early part of the century was built with a fine run aft, and a bluff bow; but about 20 years ago, this style was supplanted by increased sharpness of bows and stern, a raking (slanting upwards and backwards) stern-post, more depth, the draught aft double of that forward, great fineness of the water-lines, narrow beam, and immense sails. effect of these changes was a great increase of speed, attended, however, with certain defects: one

The

of which was that the diminished breadth of beam injuriously affected buoyancy, and the yachts consequently were more liable to be wetted in a heavy sea. In 1851, the hollow manner in which the crack yachts of the principal clubs in England were beaten by the yacht America of the New York Yachting Club, shewed their owners and builders that they had still much to learn in the way of improvement; and with few exceptions, they wisely took the lesson. The America had great breadth of beam, comparatively little depth inside, an upright stern-post, extremely sharp entrance, and fine water-lines, and (the most remarkable feature) her maximum breadth considerably abaft the centre. With the exception of the great breadth of beam, and little depth inside, all the other characteristic points of the American yacht were adopted by the builders of yachts in this country; the difference between the

draught aft and forward was diminished; and the result of these changes has shewn that they were great improvements.

The materials used in the building of yachts are wood, iron, and steel; wood alone, wood and iron together, iron alone, and steel alone, being the various ways in which the materials are employed. Yachts built of wood, or of wood and iron, are generally coppered, to protect the planking, and secure the smoothness of surface essential to speed. The considerations which determine the relative length, breadth, depth, &c., are treated of under SHIP-BUILDING. Considerable stimulus is given to improvements in construction by the numerous prizes which are offered for competition by the various yacht clubs, and which amount to about £7000 annually. These small, but powerfully built, and thoroughly sea-worthy vessels have traversed every sea on the globe; numbers make trips to Norway and the Mediterranean; a few visit America and the Indian and Southern Oceans; and one or two have circumnavigated the globe. Some of the most remarkable performances of yachts are the voyage from New York to Liverpool of the Charter Oak, 23 tons, in 36 days; that of the Sylvie, 205 tons, from Halifax to Havre, in 16 days; those of the Inca, Katinka, and Vivid, 25 tons each, from England to Australia; and the great Atlantic yacht-race from New York to Cowes, in December 1866, which was won by the Henrietta, 205 tons, after a voyage of 14 days Yachts may be divided, according to the style of their rig, into Cutters (q. v.), fore-and-aft and square topsail Schooners (q. v.), and Yawls (q.v.). The tonnage of these vessels is very variable, ranging from 3 to 420 tons in Britain, the average tonnage being 30-50 tons. There are also steamyachts belonging to the various clubs, but they are too insignificant in number to require more than mention. The Victoria and Albert and the Fairy, both belonging to her Majesty, are specimens of this class. YAJNAVALKYA is the reputed author of the Satapatha-Brahman'a (see Yajurveda, under VEDA), and of a Dharmas'âstra, or law-book (see SANSCRIT LITERATURE, sec. Law). His name points to his being a descendant of Yajnavalka; and, according to tradition, he was also a descendant of Vis'wâmitra (q. v.), and belonged to a branch of the Kus'ikas. He seems to have occupied an influential position at the court of King Janaka of Videha. Nothing certain, however, is as yet known regarding the age at which he lived.

YAK (Bos grunniens), a species of ox found in Tibet, and domesticated there. It is ranked by Colonel Hamilton Smith in the genus Bison, along with the Bison, Gaur, and Gayal, and by Mr Gray in the new genus Poëphagus. The wild yak of Central Asia is the largest native animal of Tibet, and is found only near the limits of perpetual snow, descending into the higher wooded valleys in winter, and ascending in summer to the pastures of short grass and carices, some of which are at an elevation of 17,000 feet above the sea. It is hunted by large dogs, and is very fierce, falling upon an adversary not only with its horns but with its chest, and crushing him by its weight. It is generally black. The yak has been domesticated from time immemorial, and forms great part of the wealth of the inhabitants of the highest and coldest regions of Central Asia. The domesticated yak is about the height of an English ox, which it much resembles also in figure of body, head, and legs. It is covered all over, however, with a thick coat of long silky hair, hanging down like the fleece of a sheep. The head is rather short; the eyes large and beautiful; the horns not very large, spreading,

tapering from the base, a little turned back at the tips, a space between them on the forehead covered with a mass of curling hair; the nose is smooth and convex, the nostrils small. The neck is short; the withers high and arched; the rump is low; the legs are short. Over the shoulders there appears a bunch somewhat like that of the zebu, but it consists only of long hair. The hair of the whole ridge of the back is long and erect, but not harsh. The tail is covered with a prodigious quantity of long flowing hair, descending to the hock, and has much

the appearance of a large bunch of hair artificially attached. Not a joint of it is visible. From the chest, between the fore-legs, issues a large pointed tuft of long hair. The hair of the shoulders, rump, and upper parts of the body is comparatively thick and short; but that of the lower parts is long and straight, hanging below the knee, and sometimes even to the ground. Yaks exhibit great variety of colours; but black and white are the most prevalent. It is not uncommon to see the long hair on the ridge of the back, the tail, the tuft on the chest, and the legs below the knee white, whilst all the rest is jet The great quantity of hair, evidently a protection against the cold of the climate for which it is destined, gives the yak an apparent size far beyond the reality.

black.

The yak does not low like an ox, but utters a short grunting sound like a pig, as the expression either of uneasiness or of satisfaction.

his Himalayan Journal, describes the calves as 'the It delights in steep and rocky places. Hooker, in drollest of animals, like ass-colts in their antics, kicking up their short hind-legs, whisking their bushy tails in the air, rushing up and down the grassy slopes, and climbing like cats to the top of the rocks. The yak is capable of becoming very tame. The Tibetan girls call the yak cows by a peculiar cry to be milked.

The milk of the yak is very rich, and the curd made of it is much used by the Tibetans, both fresh and dried, often powdered into a kind of meal. The butter made from yak-milk is excellent, and is preserved for a long time in the dry and cold climate of Tibet in bladders. It is an important article of Tibetan commerce. The flesh of the yak is of the finest quality; that of the calves is much superior to ordinary veal. Yak flesh is often dried in the sun by the Tibetans, and eaten raw. The yak is never used for tillage or draught, but is very much employed as a beast of burden, and travels at a slow pace twenty miles a day, where no other beast of burden could well be employed. The lazy and luxurious lamas of Tibet often ride upon it, an attendant leading the animal. The hair is spun into ropes, and made into coverings for tents. The soft fur on the hump and shoulders is made into a