est praise. Nothing has been done against the free exercise of Mohammedanism by the natives, except that the dervishes have been generally forbidden to appear in the cities, being considered disturbers of the public peace. They were in the habit, by their cries and sermons directed against the Russians, of exciting mobs in the bazaars. No efforts have been made to spread Christianity, though a church exists at Tashkent for the use of the Russians, and General Kaufmann has speedily put down all missionary projects. The consequence is that Mohammedanism, instead of growing stronger, has grown weaker. The natives have not been led to attach themselves more to their religion, because such attachment was forbidden by the Russians. On the contrary, the abolition of the native functionaries who compelled the performance of regular religious rites, and of a stated attendance at the mosques, has allowed much indifference and carelessness to creep in.

If this state of things continues, the younger generation will grow up with even skeptical notions. The clergy have seen the danger of this, and on one or two occasions have appealed to the Russian authorities to prohibit certain practices, common or gaining ground among the natives, which they have looked upon as contrary to the principles of the Koran; but the Russians, with much good sense, have refused to interfere. Sanitary measures in the cities have been taken by the Russians. Hospitals have been established, physicians appointed, to be consulted by the natives, and during the cholera times many persons gave their whole time to an organized work of disinfection and preventing the spread of the disease, with excellent results. These things the natives begin to appreciate. As far as education is concerned, the Russians have done almost nothing. In Samarcand, owing to the vigorous efforts of the commander of the city, himself a Mussulman, a small school has been opened for the instruction of Mussulman children in Russia, but neither in Tashkent, nor in any other town of the province of Syr Darya, except two small Kirghiz schools in Peroffsky and Kazalinsk, does such a school exist, nor, indeed, a school of any kind. It has been proposed once or twice to introduce the teaching of Russian and of modern knowledge into some of the Mussulman medresses or high schools, and upon the whole this project was viewed with favor by the authorities, but owing to their lack of initiative the matter has been neglected. This is to be the more regretted as few of the officials who come to the country have a knowledge of it, and the administration is consequently obliged to use as interpreters either natives who barely understand Russian, Cossacks who have a very rough knowledge of the native languages, or Tartars, who are in general the most honest or best of interpreters. The badness of the interpreters is not only a source of great trouble and confusion in dealing with the natives, but has led to some most ridiculous and even critical mistakes. The authorities of Samarcand arranged for the purchase of a lithographic press, for the purpose of making native books cheaper, and thus gradually spreading enlightenment, but this was viewed with disfavor by General Kaufmann and absolutely forbidden.

So far as the more material interests of the country are concerned, the Russians have endeavored to do well, although their efforts have sometimes failed to succeed. The roads are being greatly improved, (which seems a little strange when good roads are so almost unknown in Russia itself,) bridges are being constructed over the chief streams, and canals are being projected for the purpose of irrigation. Russian engi neers, however, have yet to learn from the natives with regard to irrigation, nearly all of the last attempts in this direction having proved failures, and the great canal from the Syr-Darya, which is expected to fertilize the famished steppe between the Syr-Darya and Djizak, will probably absorb a vast amount of money and be a failure. În former days, when this steppe was cultivated to some extent, the water was brought, not from the Syr-Darya, but from the Zaraphan through a mountain-pass. For industry and commerce, the Russian administration has done comparatively little. Commercial treaties have been made with Kokand, Bokhara, Kashgar, and Khiva; but slight pains have, as yet, been taken to insure the enforcement of their stipulations. The mer chants in these countries are under very great difficulties, and receive but slight protection from their government, and, in spite of provisions to the contrary, they are obliged to pay illegal duties, and the foreign commerce has not greatly increased.

In Kashgar, during the last summer, the caravan of Messrs. Inpyschoft was detained and placed under great restrictions, by order of Yakub Bek, who finally purchased some 19,000 rubles' worth of goods, but forbade his subjects to purchase more. Various projects have been proposed for starting factories for cotton-spinning and the fabrication of silk, and the government, in some cases, has lent material assistance to these and other projects; but, with the exception of a silk-spinning establishment at Khodjent belonging to a Moscow company, nothing now exists.

The agriculture and trade of the country might be, to some extent, developed by the establishment of Russian colonies; but, so far, it has not been permitted to Russians to buy land outside of the cities and engage in agriculture. Colonel Glukoffsky had an idea to establish a great fair at Tashkent, which he persuaded the government would be a great emporium for all Central Asia; and, consequently, buildings were erected on a large scale, similar to those at Nezheri Novgorod, at a distance of about

two miles from the city. When the fair, however, was opened, no one appeared to trade, and an order was then made closing the bazaar in the city of Tashkent during the whole period of the fair, with the idea of thus compelling attendance and trade there. This proving ineffectual, heavy fines were imposed upon natives and others who did not appear there, and they were even sent there under a guard of Cossacks; but even this had slight effect. The Russian merchants themselves were obliged to petition for a repeal of these orders, on the ground that if the natives were forbidden to trade in the usual way, they would be unable to pay them the money which they owed. The Russian merchants, too, found it disag eeable to be compelled to keep warehouses for their goods at the fair as well as in their private establishments, and the fair has therefore been a failure, entailing an expense upon government, during the three or four years of its existence, of nearly 400,000 rubles.

So far, I have spoken of the Russian administration with regard to the native population; but the province also bears relation to the empire. It has been rather the fashion to speak of Turkistan as almost a "promised land." What originally sent Peter the Great into Central Asia was, without doubt, the expectation that goid and other precious metals would be found there in large quantities. When Tashkent was at last occupied, people talked much of the gold and enormous mineral wealth to be obtained from the mountains, and of the vast productions of the irrigated lands. It is, however, almost impossible to develop the mineral wealth. The coal which is found near Khodjent costs almost too much to be used for fuel in Tashkent, on account of the high price of transport. As to the productions of the soil, the cost of supporting the troops is far greater than was anticipated in this fertile land. The vast trade which it was expected could be carried on with the natives does not exist at present, the statistics showing that the Central Asiatic trade has fallen off rather than increased during the last eight years. In fact, there is very little opportunity for trade. The population of Central Asia is not large; its wants are few; very little can be exported there with advantage, except prints, cotton goods, cloths, tea, and some small articles, and at present the only goods imported from Central Asia are cotton, (very bad in quality,) silk, and a few fine sheepskins, known as "Astrakhan." It is possible that a considerable trade might be developed in horse-hair and in dried fruits, and the cotton-trade might perhaps be increased, but at present the communications are so bad between this country and Europe as to render trading very difficult. From this point of view, the destruction of fourteen per cent. of the camels, the only transporting force during the late Khivan expedition, is greatly to be regretfed, and this winter, and for some time to come, the prices for transport must be greatly increased. In fact, it will be very long before Central Asia as a property will be of the slightest value to Russia, and, unless great changes of administration are made, it will also be very long before it even pays for the expenses which are necessary to keep it up. A very large number of officials is maintained in the province, much larger indeed than is required by the administrative needs of the country, and to protect them, as well as to maintain order, it is necessary to have a large force of troops. There are at present in the province of Turkistan some 36,000 soldiers-according to good authority more than twice the number necessary-who cost yearly a large sum to the government. It is possible that if they were not required here, they would be required in some other part of Russia; at the same time the expenses of transport of the troops themselves and the cost of bringing to them articles of uniform and of equipment made in Russia are very great. So far, there have been only deficits in the budget of Turkistan, which have increased year by year, until in 1872 they amounted to 5,500,000 rubles, and for 1873 probably will be more than 7,000,000 rubles. The total of the income and expenditure of Turkistan for the five years from 1868 to 1872 is as follows, in rubles:

In this are not included the preliminary expenses for the army for things which are made in Russia. These enter into the general budget of the empire, where there is no comparison of one part of the country with another, so as to show what would be properly charged to the province of Turkistan. Besides this, there was received in 1871 400,000 rubles as a war contribution from Bokhara, which is not included in the budget, but was spent without account there. The revenues of the Zaraphan circle since 1868,

about 1,500,000 rubles yearly, do not appear in the budget, being, until now, at the special disposition of the governor-general. A view may be obtained of the capacities and state of the country by analyzing a little one of the budgets-say for the year 1872. The income of the country is of two kinds: first, that coming especially from the country itself and its population; and second, that which is, as it were, moved on from Russia, produced from the Russians who live there. The local revenues amount to only 1,328,200 rubles. Of these, the personal taxes and taxes of kibitkas amount to 566,000 rubles. The road-tax is 154,000 rubles, and the tax on land and its products is 276,000 rubles. The duty from internal trade is 15,000 rubles. The entire indirect taxes on articles of consumption, including the duty on articles of foreign trade, amount to 224,000 rubles, to which should be added the duty on tea imported from India, amounting to 10,000 rubles. The receipts for articles paid to government, 13,000 rubles. From government property, as for instance, rents of shops in the bazaar, 32,400 rubles; and for freights on steamers of the Aral flotilla, 800 rubles. The coal taken from the gov ernment mines amounted to 4,600 rubles; but the quantity actually sold in 1872 brought in only 100 rubles. Wood and timber brought in 8,500 rubles. This shows the unproductiveness of the country, and the undeveloped state of its mineral wealth. There were collected 21,400 rubles of previous taxes; and, among smaller items, foreign passports for natives brought in 700 rubles. The revenues received chiefly from Russians were as follows: Direct taxes of various kinds, 6,200 rubles; indirect taxes, from articles of consumption, 255,000 rubles, most of which was from the excise on spirits. The taxes for rising in official rank brought in 19,000 rubles in the year. The postal revenues amounted to 44,000 rubles, and the telegraph, which was not at that time open to Tashkent, 3,000 rubles, while the sale of powder and cartridges brought in 1,200 rubles. The sale of treasury notes produced 16,000 rubles. The sale of various government property, such as medicines, useless things, and so forth, brought in 14,000 rubles; and private work at the government typography was done to the amount of 2,500 rubles. The return of money illegally obtained from the treasury, fines, and the pension capital, brought in 20,000 rubles. The chief increase in articles of revenue is in the excise on liquors, the stamp-tax on documents, and the postal revenues. The excise on liquors, and rights for the sale of liquors in 1868, was 114,000 rubles; in 1869, 1:29,000 rables; in 1870, 213,000 rubles; in 1871, 240,000 rubles; and in 1872, 255,000 rubles. The stamp-tax produced, in 1868, 3,000 rubles, and in 1872, 26,000 rubles; but this was not placed on a proper basis before the year 1870. The postal revenue was only 9,:00 rubles in 1868, and in 1872 was 65,300 rubles. As the natives do not use liquors to any extent, it being against the principles of the Koran, the excise is paid, of course, by the Russian population only; and as in the course of five years the produce of the tax has more than doubled, it would seem as if the Russian population had also doubled in that time. It is, however, not probable that the Russian population of Turkistan is more than 100,000, from which must be deducted the Tartars, who do not drink; consequently every Russian in the province during 1872 paid a tax of two rubles per head for the right of drinking; a large sum as compared with the usual statistics for the use of liquors in other populations. It was at first expected to unite all branches of the administration under the war department, but this was found to have a very bad effect upon the finances of the country, and it subsequently became necessary to take the finances, as well as the post, away from the control of the military. Since that time a branch of the central department has been placed in Tashkent, which has succeeded, not only in greatly reducing the expenses, but in returning to the treasury sums which have been erroneously taken from it. The main items for expenses in 1872 are as follows:

The total expenses amount to 7,529,627 rubles; to this should be added 500,000 rubles for the expenses for articles for the army, &c., made in other parts of Russia, but destined to this province. It will be seen that the expenses of government are very large, but it is difficult to say exactly where economy should begin. All judges of the country-men who have themselves served there-are certain that, as I before remarked, only one-half of the present number of troops is necessary, which, of course, would very materially reduce the expenses. There are also other things which, perhaps, are not great in themselves, but which mount up to a large sum. For instance, the expenses of the Tashkent fair, during 1872, amounted to 150,000 rubles-an expense utterly useless and uncalled for. The sum of 30,000 rubles is expended on the repairing and keeping up the house and garden of the governor-general; 30,000 rubles a year is also given to the horse-breeding establishment, which, though if properly cared for might be of some service to the country, is not an absolute necessity, and serves merely as a comfortable berth for certain members of the governor-general's chancery. When the province of Turkistan was formed into a separate governor-generalship it was thought that it might probably reduce the expenses of Orenburg and Western Siberia, but experience has shown that the expenses of these provinces are not at all diminished, and we have the addition of very large sums to keep up the officials, and staffs of officials, who are now in Tashkent. As Turkistan is a separate governorgeneralship and military district, it must have all the central administrations, in order that it may be entirely independent of others. Thus there is a central administration of artillery, a central administration of the army, a central administration of the finances, &c., which could be quite as well managed at Orenburg or Orusk. General Tchernaieff, who certainly knew the country as well as any one else, in a long and able report, which he made last year to the minister of finance, expressed his strong opinion that it would be advisable, on financial as well as on political grounds, to return to the old order of things, to abolish the office of governor-general, and to restore the province of Turkistan to the governor-general of Orenburg.

At the time of the march of the Russian troops to Tashkent it was thought that it would be of great advantage to occupy the fertile oases of Central Asia, for one reason among others, that it would be so much easier and cheaper to support the troops. It is questionable, however, whether this has proved to be the case. In 1872 the treasury spent for the provision of the army 972,777 rubles, which, with an average of 30,000 enlisted men, would cost 324 rubles per man, and in these figures are only included flour and groats. The expense, therefore, is enormous, but it is easily understood when we see that a quarter of flour costs in Tashkent from 10 to 12 rubles, which in almost any province of European Russia would be considered a famine price. The maintenance of the cavalry is still dearer. The number of horses belonging to the government in the whole district is between 4,000 and 5,000, and 1,000,000 rubles is spent for forage, consequently about 200 rubles a horse, yet this is the country where we are constantly told that the harvest is sometimes eighty to one hundred fold, and that twice a year, while clover and hay can be cut four times a year. Although cattle-raising is the main occupation of the Central-Asiatic steppes, yet the government pays not less than 2 rubles 40 kopecks for a pood (33 pounds) of beef or mutton, a price which would even be dear where cattle-breeding was unknown. There is one curious thing in connection with the prices paid for provisions. Grain is dear because there is a tax of 10 per cent. on the products of the land. The government, in 1872, received as the produce of that tax 276,000 rubles, and at the same time it spent about 2,000,000 rubles for provisions. It therefore must have paid itself, in the province of Syr Darya, at least 150,000 rubles of this tax from one hand into the other. The remainder of the sum received, therefore, 126,000 rubles, must have fallen on the population, which in the province of Syr Darya is not less than 800,000. Eight hundred thousand people, therefore, were supported on 1,260,000 rubles, while 30,000 troops required 2,000,000 rubles, from which it would seem that something must be wrong with the commissariat or the financial system. It is evident from the foregoing that Turkistan is not, and will not be for some time to come, a self-sustaining province; but, at the same time, such a result could hardly be expected in the nine or ten years that the Russians have had possession of the country. The primary objects which led to the occupation of Central Asia were rather military than financial, and so long as the province is considered valuable from a military and political point of view, the financial burden must be borne. It seems, however, difficult to expect great ultimate profit from the country, from any point of view; the utmost that can be desired in this case is that strict economy be practiced, the expenses of the country so far as is possible reduced, and its capacities developed, so as to diminish the burden as much as possible. Many wars will constantly be made, and the Russians will have to go further on, not with the desire of conquest, but from circumstances over which they have no control; for in such a case it is always necessary to maintain the prestige of the country, and not allow the neighboring powers to take advantage of any seeming weakness or hesitancy.

On the whole, the Russian influence is beneficial in Central Asia, not only to the in

habitants, but to the world, and it certainly is greatly for our interest that a counterpoise should exist there against the extension of English dominion in Asia. Having once taken possession of the country, it will be almost impossible for the Russians, with any fairness to the natives, to withdraw from it.

THE RUSSIAN FOREIGN POLICY IN CENTRAL ASIA.

It can hardly be said that the Russians have a fixed policy in Asia. The govern ment at St. Petersburg has been always sincerely desirous of refraining from conquests and extension of dominion in Central Asia, but circumstances have compelled them often to take the aggressive, and conquests having been once made, it has been found to be impossible to give them up, without a certain loss of prestige. It has, of course, been desired to extend the Russian influence as far as possible, by peaceful means, and to do the best that was possible for the interests of commerce. One general after another has seen himself obliged to keep up the credit of Russian arms, and attack a native government. The reasons which led him to this course have at last been found good at St. Petersburg, although it was regretted that such necessity had arisen, and the conquests which he made were retained. The policy has thus been a floating one, subject entirely to circumstances.

I am convinced that there is not the slightest desire or intention to make any attack upon India, but naturally the Russians would dislike to see England extending her influence nearer than it now does to Central Asia, and it is possible that at some time differences might arise with regard to the English policy in Kashgar. English criticism, however, and English diplomatic interference have had much effect upon the Russian policy. There is a strong objection felt in the foreign office to take steps of any kind in Central Asia, lest some difficulty with England might arise from them, and the consequence is that the general governor does not always have the possibility of acting in the way which he thinks best suits the state of affairs. Russia, apparently, does not feel herself strong enough to take her own course without regard to what England might say or think. As to the special policy of the governor-general, as distinguished from that of his government, it would seem to be to play the part of the pacificator of Central Asia. With this view treaties have been made with various states, though little care has been taken that they be kept after having, in the opinion of the world, reduced the surrounding khanates to a state of vassalage. The Khivan expedition was undertaken to keep up this view, and round off the whole by a successful military expedition, which would put down the last elements of disorder in Central Asia. How far such a policy has been successful will be seen by considering the relations with each country separately. The diplomatic intercourse between Russia and the independent countries of Central Asia is under the control of the governor-general, who is assisted by a diplomatic employé, (until the end of 1873, Mr. Struve, now diplomatic agent and consul-general at Japan, and since that time Mr. Weinberg.) There are no residents or other diplomatic or political agents in the various countries. Kokand has an envoy constantly living at Tashkent, and Bokhara has had one there at various times. The political employé, sometimes alone, and sometimes in connection with other officers, has made occasional visits to Bokhara and to Kokand, and all the diplomatic affairs are in his hands. A special envoy, Baron Kaulbars, was at one time sent to Kashgar, to conclue a treaty of peace. Though the governorgeneral has, to a certain extent, full powers in diplomatic matters, they are subject to the general jurisdiction of the Asiatic department of the foreign office, though that department is, in fact, very badly informed as to what actually goes on in Central

Asia.

1st. Kokand.-By the capture of Tashkent, the adjoining country, and of Khodjent, or Kokand City, but then under Bokharan rule in 1866, the khan of Kokand was restricted to a very small portion of his former territory, his sway having previously extended to the mouth of the Syr Darya, and he was left to govern a small but fertile territory, completely surrounded by mountains except on the western side near Khodjent. It was at first expected to take also the province of Namangan, confining Kokand to the south of the rivers Narym and Syr Darya, and General Romanoffsky was exceedingly desirous of rounding off his conquests by the occupation of the city of Kokand and the conquest of the whole country; but shrewd advice given to the khan made him send congratulations to the Russians on the capture of Khodjent, and as there was no cause for war General Romanoffsky was reluctantly compelled for the time to desist. He was soon after removed, and as the policy indicated at St. Pe tersburg has been always against fresh conquests, and nothing occurred on the side of Kokand to render advance absolutely necessary in that direction, the country has been untouched since that time. A treaty of commerce was concluded in 1868, by which Russian merchants were to have protection and free permission to travel in Khokan, and that only 24 per cent. duty was to be imposed on exports or imports, The impression was given at St. Petersburg, by the signature of this treaty and by the reports from Tashkent, that Khokan was in a perfectly vassal position to Rassia, but this is far from being the case. The treaty has been by no means carefully