Nor was the work of reproduction merely a matter of memory. As the words of the author were not allowed to be reported beyond what was strictly necessary, the student was compelled to have every faculty alert to master the sequence of thought, and to assimilate the ideas that he was to relate, in his own form of expression. To illustrate how far this quickness of mind and ready grasp of numerous and difficult statements were carried, the writer has sometimes called for the reading of three pages of Taine, representing his rapid enumeration of strange particulars, his subtle analyses, or broad, sweeping generalizations. Without other preparation than simply listening to the reader, a student has, in his own language, reproduced what has been so read with no important break in the continuity of thought, or marked departure from the author's meaning.

To say nothing of the general mental discipline so gained, this quickening and sharpening of the mind is not without its influence for good in the work of literary criticism. The writer has had, from students, no finer estimate of the style of Macaulay, Thackeray, and Carlyle, and other writers, than have come spontaneously in connection with this exercise.

Here again is a means of rhetorical training. The almost instantaneous translation of the author's meaning into the student's form of speech, helps to a facility of expression not always acquired by the slower process of written composition. The power gained, as the phrase is, to think on one's feet-this ability to hold in mind a long train of thought and to command words for its immediate statement- was, often seen in the ease with which a student engaged in extemporaneous debate, the following year. Having charge of both exercises, the writer frequently observed with pleasure the close connection between this work in the literature class, Sophomore year, and that in extemporaneous speaking, Junior year.

Reviewing the results of such a term's work, there were none more in accord with the purpose of the course than the change on the part of many members of the class in literary tastes. From the time of that term's work to the close of Senior year, the books, charged by the college librarians to such names, gave evidence of a steadily growing acquaintance with the best works of our literature.

In closing, it is to be repeated that this paper has not described

an ideal course in English literature. Such a course cannot be limited to one term. But as in many schools there must be this limit of time, the question is how can the study for the time be made most profitable? The writer's desire to help to an answer is his only excuse for giving his experience in directing "A Term's Work in English Literature."

IN

EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS OF NORWAY.

BY BELLE C. POGUE, CINCINNATI.

N the long period of over four hundred years prior to 1814, during which time Norway and Denmark were united under one government, the educational system suffered the greatest neglect. Norway had been retrograding in many respects, and especially in educational matters. The officers of the government, the greater part of whom were Danes, sent hither by the administration in Copenhagen, manifested no interest whatever in the intellectual development of the people, and very little was done for public instruction prior to the eighteenth century.

Since the establishment of Norwegian independence in 1814, the national legislature has been actively engaged in promoting public instruction. This would have been almost entirely lacking if it had not been for a royal ordinance which was issued in 1736, instituting the rite of confirmation. The Lutheran reformation was introduced into Denmark and Norway as early as 1536, but compulsory confirmation, in preparation for which the young were compelled to be instructed in the truths of Christianity, and public examination connected with it, imposed on all children without exception, were not introduced until two hundred years later. According to this act, no child should be admitted to confirmation, who has not previously been sent to school, and received instruction in the essential portions of the Christian doctrine, and is able to read the Bible.

No Norwegian is allowed to marry who has not been confirmed. Consequently they feel the necessity for education a personal important matter.

Children who have reached their fourteenth year, and are backward in their education, must receive special instruction until

they are prepared to enter the schools, the necessary expense being borne by their parents; and he who attains his twentieth year, and is too ignorant to be confirmed, must fear the House of Correction. Thus public education is admirably cared for, and ignorance is punished as a crime, an excellent example for far richer and more powerful nations. The law provides that there shall be at least one public school in each town and village throughout the country, and attendance is obligatory for all children from eight years in the country and seven in towns till the time they are confirmed, which is generally when they are about fifteen years of age.

In the country a school committee is appointed, who divide the school districts into circles, each including as many families as they find convenient. Children go to the schoolhouse, the road to which is the easiest, and most accessible from their homes. Whenever there are thirty children who are legally bound to attend school, living so near each other as to be able to attend the same one, a common school is established either in a regular schoolhouse, or another building rented for the purpose.

A law of May, 1860, declares that it shall be the aim of the common schools to second family education, by imbuing the young with true Christian principles and furnishing them with the knowledge and acquirements which every member of society should possess, as well as to advance them in general knowledge as far as circumstances will allow. So, in the lower common schools the children are instructed in reading, writing, arithmetic, a knowledge of the Christian religion, and selected parts of a reading book (which is published by the government, and so is the same in all these schools), such as relate to history, geography, and knowledge of nature.

The establishment of this lower common school is obligatory on all school districts, but that of a higher school is optional.

In the higher schools, which only receive pupils over twelve years of age, a fuller instruction is given in the common branches, and geography, history, natural history, drawing, and geometry. A more advanced class also receives instruction in mathematics, political economy, and one foreign language.

As the legislature has enacted that the common schools shall maintain a Christian character, and religious instruction shall be considered of primary importance, these schools all open and close with prayer, or singing of hymns, or both.

The children, even the poorest, are neatly dressed, for their parents feel it would be a shame to send them otherwise. As human nature is akin the world over, I have no doubt the Norwegian boys have some substitute for the bent pin, and other devices with which the boys of America take delight in tormenting their companions and teachers, but the mode of punishment is not the same as in our schools. Refractory children receive marks for bad conduct, after which they are warned twice by the principal, and if they do not then improve they receive corporal punishment. Many portions of Norway are intersected by high mountains and deep fjords, so that a very small population is scattered over a surface of several miles, making it impossible to establish common schools. As the law compels children to be educated, in such localities there have been established "Ambulatory Schools," whose teachers may truly be said to be "abroad," as they wander from farm to farm, living with the different peasants, so that the most distant families may have the benefit of their instruction.

Although this kind of instruction has often been most incomplete, and the teachers very mediocre, still educational coercion has everywhere been in force, and Christian instruction provided for the children.

These ambulatory schools formerly existed in large numbers, but with the increase of wealth and population, and the growing interest taken in education, their number has greatly diminished, and that of fixed circle schools augmented in the same proportion.

There are districts, however, where it is not possible to establish even "Ambulatory Schools," and here the law orders the school committee to provide for the children receiving instruction in some other way.

Manufactories and industrial establishments in rural districts are obliged to provide a school for the children of their workmen when they employ at least thirty.

The yearly school time is far too short to give practical education, as in the lower public schools in the country the school term need not be longer than three months of the year with six hours study a day, but in very many districts, a longer term has been established. It is generally the children of laborers who attend these public schools, those of the wealthier class going to private institutions. Whenever parents send their children to private schools or instruct them themselves in branches taught in the common schools, on announcing it to the school committee, they

are exempted from sending their children to the established schools, but still are bound to contribute their share to their expenses; and the committee may at any time send their children to the public school if they find they have failed in their selfimposed duty.

Whenever the school committee finds that circumstances allow it, the boys attending the common schools are instructed in gymnastics and military exercises; and once a year all the boys of the various free schools are collected and go through a military parade. Each school has its place, and some have bands of music. These parades are greatly enjoyed by the people, who prepare a feast for the boys, and take great interest in all the evolutions, especially the exercises with wooden guns.

Another great event is the public examination of the pupils of all the schools, which takes place once a year in the presence of the pastor of the parish and the other members of the school committee. All children over nine years of age must take part, even those who attend private schools, or are taught by their parents or tutors at home. The pastor of the parish, who is generally a man of considerable learning, is the chairman of the school committee, and he is expected to exert a constant and efficient control, and to maintain order, diligence, and a Christian spirit in the schools. This is not so hard an office as it would seem, as the pastors are highly respected by their people, and have an almost unlimited influence over them.

A Normal School has been established at the expense of the government in each of the six dioceses, into which the country is divided, to train teachers for the public schools. They are under the supervision of the government, and their teachers are appointed by the king. In these schools the course comprises religion, a thorough knowledge of the native tongue, arithmetic, music, geography, history, natural sciences, penmanship, drawing, and gymnastics; and a model school exists in connection with each.

As a general rule only those teachers who have passed an examination at these higher seminaries or normal schools, receive positions in the common public schools. Female teachers are not admitted to these Normal schools, and are not yet generally employed, but a seminary for them has been recently established at Christiania.

In these "teachers' schools," the course of study requires from a year to a year and a half. Teachers are greatly esteemed in