luminous apparition in the sky could be; and many of the religious have felt that Jesus could not have assumed the entirely new character of a military protector, without a manifest departure from his own pacific maxims. At the present day, the miracle is very generally rejected. Some consider it a fiction, invented either by Constantine or Eusebius, to throw supernatural interest round the first union of Christianity with the State. Others more reasonably suppose that the emperor really saw some uncommon meteor, and that, as years passed on, the account of it became greatly exaggerated. Being in an anxious state of mind, having prayed that the Christians' God would reveal himself, and living at a period when everything was construed into an omen, or a miracle, the imagination of Constantine would doubtless have been easily excited, either by northern lights in the evening, or a solar halo at noon; and it would be very natural that his dreams should be connected with what he had seen. If he subsequently adopted the motto, it would readily be added to the mar vellous story in process of time. The probability that meteors were actually seen is increased by the statement of Nazarius, a Roman orator, and a votary of the old worship. He pronounced a panegyric on Constantine, nine years after his decisive victory, long before Eusebius wrote. his account of the miracle. He describes a troop of beautiful Spirits in the sky, clad in refulgent armour, who were heard and seen by the whole army. He says: "It is the report throughout all Gaul that armies were seen, who professed to be divinely sent; saying, We want to find Constantine. We are sent to his assistance." The flattering orator adds that even Divine Beings were ambitious of such distinction, and glorified themselves with the idea of fighting for Constantine. Among the fantastic forms of the Aurora Borealis, none are more common than shooting streams of light, resembling lances hurled across the sky. In that age of the world, a supernatural cause would of course be assigned for such appearances; and where Greek and Roman imagination saw deities descending with brilliant

spears, Christians in the army could quite as easily perceive a luminous cross.

Whatever might have been the real origin of the story, the emperor caused a standard to be made in the form of a cross; and, according to tradition, it was an exact copy of the one seen in his dream. The shaft was cased with gold, and it was surmounted by a golden crown, on which were inscribed a monogram, signifying the name of Christ. Beneath the crown was a small purple banner, and the bust of Constantine, which shared the homage paid by the soldiers to their consecrated standard, without necessarily bringing them under the charge of idolatry. This standard was called the Labarum, the meaning of which is now unknown. It was for a long time carried at the head of the imperial army, intrusted to the care of fifty faithful guards; and a belief prevailed that no weapon could harm them while they were employed in guarding the sacred emblem.

After the victory over Maxentius, Constantine adopted the cross as a kind of amulet, to which he ascribed supernatural powers of protection. It was always carried with him on important occasions, and he was often observed to make the sign of the cross upon his forehead. But his proceedings indicate a prolonged uncertainty in his mind, as if he were waiting for events to decide what deity would prove most powerful to advance his own interests. It is likely that during the first years, the old and the new were mixed in his mind; reverence for the ancient worship remained to a considerable degree, and struggled with the conviction that Jehovah was the greatest of all gods. He pursued a very liberal policy toward Christians; but many of his actions were obvious violations of their precepts. He set at liberty those who were unjustly imprisoned, and pardoned most of those who had taken up arms against him; but he caused many of his enemies to be executed, and put to death the infant son of his rival Maxentius. Many of his German captives, whom Roman pride designated as barbarians, were exposed to contests with lions and tigers in the circus, for the amusement of VOL. III.-1*

the populace; as had been the custom with previous emperors. In the year three hundred and thirteen, he published an edict of unlimited toleration, in which Christianity was recognized as one of the forms in which Deity might be lawfully worshipped. The church property, confiscated during previous reigns, was restored, and he gave large sums of money to the Christians in Africa to rebuild their ruined edifices. Those who had meanwhile come into legal possession of the land were indemnified. A regular allowance of corn was granted in each city, to meet the demands of ecclesiastical charity. His pious subjects received permission to bequeath land or money to the church to an unlimited extent. The clergy were exempted from taxes, contributions, and certain municipal services, which pressed heavily on other citizens. Thus the nucleus of an ecclesiastical power, distinct from the civil, was introduced into the Roman Empire, which had hitherto never known an established priesthood. The emperor, in a letter to the Bishop of Carthage, assigns, as a reason for these privileges, that the Christian Clergy ought not to be withdrawn from the worship of God, on which the prosperity of the state depended.

But while so much favour was shown to the longpersecuted faith, entire freedom was secured to other forms of religion. The old temples and altars were not only left undisturbed, but in many cases were repaired at the expense of government; and orators lauded him for the munificence of his donations. His medals and coins still bore the image of the Sun, and other emblems of the old religion. He did not offer sacrifices to the gods himself, or 'cause it to be done for him by representatives in the provinces; but he followed the custom of his predecessors in accepting the title of Supreme Pontiff of the old religion, and performed many of the public functions of that office.

In three hundred and nineteen, he published laws in which it was declared: "They who wish to remain slaves to their superstition, have liberty for the public exercise of their worship." "You, who consider it profitable to your

selves, may continue to visit the public altars, and observe the solemnities of your usage. We do not forbid the ancient rites to be performed, provided it be done in the open light." This prohibition against secresy grew out of the fact that his colleague, Licinius, was disposed to head a party in opposition to him and Christianity. Itinerant magicians and soothsayers were forbidden to exercise their arts; for Constantine was always unable to overcome his dread of having magical rites practised against himself. From the same fear of treasonable designs, private consultation of Augurs was forbidden, and people were not allowed to offer sacrifices in houses. If the Augurs visited each other's dwellings, they were to be burned, even if they urged the plea of friendship. Whoever summoned an Augur to his house was banished, and his goods confiscated. But public auguries were consulted by priests at the temples, the same as formerly. As late as three hundred and twenty-one, he passed a law that in case lightning struck the imperial palace, or any of the public buildings, the Augurs should be consulted, according to usage, as to what it might signify; and that a careful report of their answer should be drawn up for his own use. He also gave public permission to use magical ceremonies for good purposes; such as the prevention of storms, and the preservation of harvests. Oracles convicted of fraud were silenced; but otherwise they were not interfered with; and it is even Isaid that he sometimes availed himself of their services. Some popular festivals, connected with midnight revels, and licentious practices, were interdicted, as dangerous to public morals. But, with these exceptions, rites endeared to the people by ages of reverent observance, were performed by the priesthood as usual. Offices of trust were impartially distributed between adherents of the old and the new religion. All the measures of government indicated the prudent policy of a statesman, adapting himself to a transition state in public opinion, rather than the fresh zeal of a thorough proselyte.

It has been already stated that most of the ancient na

tions had a series of seven days, named for the seven planets known to them, in which the sun and moon were included. This does not appear to have been a division of time, but to have grown out of certain ceremonies and invocations successively offered to the Seven Spirits of the Planets, who were universally supposed to have a very powerful influence on human affairs. The Romans, following a very ancient custom, called our first day of the week Dies Solis, the Day of the Sun; the second, Dies Lunæ, the Day of the Moon; the third, Dies Martis, the Day of Mars; the fourth, Dies Mercurii, the Day of Mercury; the fifth, Dies Jovis, the Day of Jupiter; the sixth, Dies Veneris, the Day of Venus; the seventh, Dies Saturni, the Day of Saturn. Apollo had gradually become more popular, as an object of worship, than Jupiter the Thunderer. As god of poetry and eloquence, he was attractive to cultivated minds; as god of prophecy, he had strong hold of the reverential and superstitious; and as god of medicine, he wore a friendly aspect to the populace. He was originally god of intellectual light, the divine archetype of the sunlight of this world; but in the latter days, his worship had become gradually mingled with Helios, god of the material sun. Therefore, it is likely that peculiar ceremonies were appropriated to him on Dies Solis. The sun had always been the chosen emblem of Constantine. Apollo was his tutelary deity; and, until he was forty years old, had always been honoured by him as his invincible protector and benefactor. The Sun's Day was therefore consecrated both to his heart and his imagination; and men do not suddenly outgrow long-cherished ideas. One of the earliest acts of his reign was to add that day to the list of public Festivals; and the following edict was passed: "Let all the people in towns, judges, mechanics, and tradesmen, rest on the venerated Day of the Sun. But those who are in the country may freely cultivate their fields; since it often happens that on no other day can grain be more suitably sowed, or the vines set." A large proportion of the soldiers adhered to the old worship. A form of prayer was