That is frequently used to indicate a noun clause;

That the earth turns on its axis is a well-known fact.

In such a construction that may be called an introductory conjunction.

Then referring to time is an adverb, denoting consequence is a conjunction.

In until then and similar phrases then is a noun meaning that time.

Therefore used between clauses having no other connective is a conjunction; when it follows and, if, since, or another conjunction, it is an adverb.

There is sometimes an adverb of place, and sometimes it is merely an introductory word placed before a verb to permit the subject of the verb to come after it ; as :

There was much water there.

In this sentence the first there may be called an introductory adverb not modifying any word.

TO THE TEACHER.

CHAPTER XI.

PUNCTUATION.

Much practice in punctuation is essential if one would attain skill and confidence.

Every pupil should punctuate all he writes as far as he is able. It is good practice for pupils to tell in accordance with what rules the marks of punctuation found in the reading lesson are used.

The work in punctuation should correspond with the advancement of the class in grammar. See the course of study on page x.

Teachers should frequently dictate a paragraph from the grammar, the reader, or the geography, naming the marks of punctuation to be inserted when their use is beyond the knowledge of the pupils, but holding the pupils responsible for the use of all the other punctuation marks. Pupils may correct their work by referring to the book. They should give the rule for the use of each capital letter and mark of punctuation.

Under punctuation is here included the use of capital and italic letters, the ordinary marks of punctuation, and those of reference and correction.

I. CAPITAL LETTERS.

The following are the leading rules for the use of capital letters: —

I. Begin with a capital letter the first word of every –

I. Sentence.

2. Line of poetry.

3. Quotation, example, precept, or question which is a sentence within a sentence.

4. Phrase or clause separately numbered.

II. Begin with a capital letter

1. A proper noun.

2. A word derived from a proper noun and an abbreviation of a proper noun.

3. A common noun joined to a proper noun to form a compound name.

Geographical names are by some authorities made an exception to this rule; as, the Mississippi river.

4. A title of honor or office when used in connection with a proper name or when referring to a particular individual.

5. Names of the Deity.

6. Names representing objects as persons.

7. The first word and all important words in the titles of books and headings of compositions, etc.

Title-pages and the titles of chapters are usually entirely in capitals.

8. Names of months, days of the week, festivals, political parties, religious denominations, important historical events, etc.

9. The words north, south, east, and west when denoting parts of the country, but not when denoting directions.

III. The words I and O should be capitals, and the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M, used as numerals, should usually be capitals.

These letters used as numerals for many references may be small letters.

Exercise.

Explain the use of the capitals in the following

sentences:

1. A young French officer used to pace his room, exclaiming, "I will be Marshal of France and a great general." He became a great general and died a Marshal of France.

2. Leonardo da Vinci would walk across Milan to change a single tint or the slightest detail in his famous picture of "The Last Supper."

3. Among Miss Alcott's works are "Little Men and "Little Women."

4. "Whom God's creatures love," the angel fair

Murmured, "God doth bless with angel's care."

5. Nero burned the city of Rome, and laid the blame upon the Christians.

II. ITALICS.

A word from a foreign language when printed in English letters should be in italics.

The common Latin abbreviations, e.g., etc., viz., are usually printed in Roman (common) letters.

When a word is spoken of as a word it should be printed in italics; as:

The word manly has two syllables.

Italics in the Bible signify that the word or words so printed are not translated from the Hebrew or Greek, but are inserted by the translator for explanation.

Words are sometimes printed in italics to render them emphatic.

Words designed by the writer to be particularly emphatic may be underscored in writing.

III. THE PERIOD IN ABBREVIATIONS.

Marks of punctuation are used with words or sentences. Those used with words are three in number; the period [.], the apostrophe ['], and the hyphen [-].

A letter or letters standing for the word or phrase of which they are a part are called an abbreviation. An abbreviation should be followed by a period unless the omission of the letters is indicated by an apostrophe.

Write the abbreviations for the days of the week, and for the months of the year.

Do not use too many abbreviations.

Titles may be abbreviated when joined with proper names, but not when standing alone.

The name of a State may be abbreviated when joined with the name of a town or county, but not otherwise.

Morning, noon, and afternoon should be expressed by A.M. or a.m., M. or m., and P.M. or p.m., only when the hour is given.

The name of a month may be abbreviated only when used with the day of the month and the year.

Use & in names of firms only.

Use words, not figures, for small numbers, excepting in tables, statistics, numbering of lines, pages, examples, dates, the time of day, and similar cases.

a sentence with a figure.

I shall call this afternoon (not P.M.).
I live in Massachusetts (not Mass.).
Wheat is fifty cents a bushel (not bu.).
similar paper you might write 50 cts. a bu.)

Do not begin

(In a bill or

I shall call the first day of December (not Dec.).