The tender leaves of hope; to-morrow blossoms, Henry VIII. Act III. Sc. 6. SECTION VII. Figure of Speech. 534. In the section immediately foregoing, a figure of speech is defined, "The using a word in a sense different from what is proper to it ;" and the new or uncommon sense of the word is termed the figurative sense. The figurative sense must have a relation to that which is proper; and the more intimate the relation is, the figure is the more happy. How ornamental this figure is to language, will not be readily imagined by any one who hath not given peculiar attention; and therefore I shall endeavor to unfold its capital beauties and advantages. In the first place, a word used figuratively or in a new sense, suggests at the same time the sense it commonly bears; and thus it has the effect to present two objects; one signified by the figurative sense, which may be termed, the principal object; and one signified by the proper sense, which may be termed accessory: the principal makes a part of the thought; the accessory is merely ornamental. In this respect, a figure of speech is precisely similar to concordant sounds in music, which, without contributing to the melody, make it harmonious. I explain myself by examples. Youth, by a figure of speech, is termed the morning of life. This expression signifies youth, the principal object, which enters into the thought; it suggests, at the same time, the proper sense of morning, and this accessory object, being in itself beautiful, and connected by resemblance to the principal object, is not a little ornamental. Imperious ocean is an example of a different kind, where an attribute is expressed figuratively: together with stormy, the figurative meaning of the epithet imperious, there is suggested its proper meaning, viz., the stern authority of a despotic prince; and these two are strongly connected by resemblance. 535. In the next place, this figure possesses a signal power of aggrandizing an object, by the following means: Words which have no original beauty but what arises from their sound, acquire an adventitious beauty from their meaning: a word signifying any thing that is agreeable, becomes by that means agreeable; for the agreeableness of the object is communicated to its name. (See chapter ii. part i. sec. 5.) This acquired beauty, by the force of custom, ad 584. The figurative sense. To what it must bear a close relation. Two objects pre sented Examples.-Youth, the morning of life. heres to the word even when used figuratively; and the beauty received from the thing it properly signifies, is communicated to the thing which, it is made to signify figuratively. Consider the fore going expression, imperious ocean, how much more elevated it is than stormy ocean. Thirdly, This figure hath a happy effect by preventing the familiarity of proper names. The familiarity of a proper name is communicated to the thing it signifies by means of their intimate connection; and the thing is therefore brought down in our feeling. This bad effect is prevented by using a figurative word instead of one that is proper; as, for example, when we express the sky by terming it the blue vault of heaven; for though no work of art can compare with the sky in grandeur, the expression however is relished, because it prevents the object from being brought down by the familiarity of its proper name. Lastly, By this figure language is enriched, and rendered more copious; in which respect, were there no other, a figure of speech is a happy invention. This property is finely touched by Vida: Quinetiam agricolas ea fandi nota voluptas Poet. lib. iii. 1. 90. The beauties I have mentioned belong to every figure of speech. Several other beauties, peculiar to one or other sort, I shall have occasion to remark afterwards. 536. Not only subjects, but qualities, actions, effects, may be expressed figuratively. Thus as to subject, the gates of breath for the lips, the watery kingdom for the ocean. As to qualities, fierce for stormy, in the expression Fierce winter: Altus for profundus; Altus puteus, Altum mare: Breathing for perspiring; Breathing plants. Again, as to actions, The sea rages; Time will melt her frozen thoughts; Time kills grief. An effect is put for the cause, as lux for the sun; and a cause for the effect, as boum labores for corn. The relation of resemblance is one plentiful source of figures of speech, and nothing is more common than to apply to one object the name of another that resembles it in any respect; height, size, and worldly greatness, resemble not each other; but the emotions they produce resemble each other, and, prompted by this resemblance, we naturally express worldly greatness by height or size: one feels a certain uneasiness in seeing a great depth; and hence depth is made to express any thing disagreeable by excess, as depth 585 By what means this figure aggrandizes an object. How this figure has a happy effect. Its influence on language. of grief, depth of despair. Again, height of place, and time long past, produce similar feelings, and hence the expression, Ut altius repetam distance in past time, producing a strong feeling, is put for any strong feeling, Nihil mihi antiquius nostra amicitia: shortness with relation to space, for shortness with relation to time, Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio: suffering a punishment resembles paying a debt; hence pendere pœnas. In the same manner, light may be put for glory, sunshine for prosperity, and weight for importance. 537. Many words, originally figurative, having by long and constant use lost their figurative power, are degraded to the inferior rank of proper terms. Thus the words that express the operations of the mind, have in all languages been originally figurative: the reason holds in all, that when these operations came first under consideration, there was no other way of describing them but by what they resembled: it was not practicable to give them proper names, as may be done to objects that can be ascertained by sight and touch. A soft nature, jarring tempers, weight of woe, pompous phrase, beget compassion, assuage grief, break a vow, bend the eye downward, shower down curses, drowned in tears, wrapt in joy, warmed with eloquence, loaded with spoils, and a thousand other expressions of the like nature, have lost their figurative sense. Some terms there are that cannot be said to be either altogether figurative or altogether proper: originally figurative, they are tending to simplicity, without having ost altogether their figurative power. Virgil's Regina saucia cura, is perhaps one of these expressions: with ordinary readers, saucia will be considered as expressing simply the effect of grief; but one of a lively imagination will exalt the phrase into a figure. ["There is," says Dr Mark Hopkins, " a natural correspondence between every state of the mind and some aspect, or movement, or voice of animate or inanimate nature. How extensive and minute this correspondence is, will perhaps be best seen if we observe how that part of human language originates which is employed to express the affections of the mind. It is a received doctrine among men learned in this department, that all words of this description had first a meaning purely physical, and that this meaning was afterwards transferred to express some affection of the mind analogous to the physical condition or act. Whether this is strictly and universally true or not, it certainly is true that the great mass of words of this description are thus formed; and if so, then it will follow, that for every mental state, act, or affection, which we can express in words, there must be some analogous state, act, or affection in the physical world. Who then can sufficiently admire that adjustment and correlation of parts by which mind and matter almost seem to be a part of one organization? * ***** 536. What, besides subjects, may be expressed figuratively. Examples. When the tame of one object may be applied to another. "Perhaps one reason (for this correspondence) is to be found in what has already been referred to-the necessity of this for the formation of language. I would not limit the resources of God, but, constituted as the human faculties now are, it would seem necessary, if they were to be fully developed, that words originally applicable to natural objects should be capable of being transferred so as to express the whole range of thought and emotion, and this would be impossible without the correspondence of which I have spoken. As it is, we speak of the light of knowledge, and the darkness of ignorance, and the sunshine of joy, and the night of grief, and the storms of passion, and the devious paths of error, and the pitfalls of vice; and we scarcely reflect that we are speaking in figures, or that the flowers of rhetoric, not less than the flowers of the field, have their origin in a material soil. Constituted as man now is, we do not see how he could have been furnished with the symbols of thought, the materials of language, in any other way."] For epitomizing this subject, and at the same time for giving a clear view of it, I cannot think of a better method than to present to the reader a list of the several relations upon which figures of speech are commonly founded. This list I divide into two tables: one of abjects expressed figuratively, and one of attributes. FIRST TABLE. Subjects expressed figuratively. 538. 1. A word proper to one subject employed figuratively to express a resembling subject. There is no figure of speech so frequent as what is derived from the relation of resemblance. Youth, for example, is signified figuratively by the morning of life. The life of a man resembles a natural day in several particulars; the morning is the beginning of day, youth the beginning of life; the morning is cheerful, so is youth, &c. By another resemblance, a bold warrior is termed the thunderbolt of war; a multitude of troubles, a sea of troubles. This figure, above all others, affords pleasure to the mind by a variety of beauties. Besides the beauties above mentioned, common to all sorts, it possesses in particular the beauty of a metaphor or of a simile: a figure of speech built upon resemblance, suggests always a comparison between the principal subject and the accessory; whereby every good effect of a metaphor or simile, may, in a very short and lively manner, be produced by this figure of speech. 2. A word proper to the effect employed figuratively to express the cause. 587. Words that have lost their figurative powe Example. Lux for the sun. Shadow for cloud. A helmet is signified by the expression glittering terror. A tree by shadow or umbrage. Hence the expression: Nec habet Pelion umbras. Where the dun umbrage hangs. A wound is made to signify an arrow: Vulnere non pedibus te consequar. Ovid. Spring, 1. 1023. Ovid. There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure: the word which signifies figuratively the principal subject, denotes it to be a cause by suggesting the effect. 3. A word proper to the cause, employed figuratively to express the effect. Boumque labores, for corn. Sorrow or grief, for tears. Again, Ulysses veil'd his pensive head; Streaming Grief his faded cheek bedew'd. Blindness for darkness: Cæcis erramus in undis. Eneid, iii. 200. There is a peculiar energy in this figure, similar to that in the former: the figurative name denotes the subject to be an effect, by suggesting its cause. 4. Two things being intimately connected, the proper name of the one employed figuratively to signify the other. Day for light. Night for darkness: and hence, A sudden night. Winter for a storm at sea: Interea magno misceri murmure pontum, Emissamque Hyemem sensit Neptunus.-Eneid, i. 128. This last figure would be too bold for a British writer, as a storm at sea is not inseparably connected with winter in this climate. 5. A word proper to an attribute, employed figuratively to denote the subject. Youth and beauty for those who are young and beautiful: Youth and beauty shall be laid in dust. |