foreign materials with stocks and handles of wood grown in this country, provided the imported materials exceed one-half of the value of the whole material used. Every one entering merchandise for importation or exportation with right of drawback is required to deposit the original invoice of such merchandise with the collector, who causes an inspection to be made by the proper officer and the articles to be compared with their respective invoices before granting the permit for lading. No drawback is allowed on merchandise entitled to debenture under existing laws unless it be exported within three years from the date of importation.

DRAWBRIDGE. See BRIDGE.

DRAWER OF A BILL. See DRAFT, BILL.

DRAWING is the art of delineating form, as opposed to color and light and shade. The term is not confined to the first outline produced by the pencil or crayon, though this is a narrower sense in which it is also used, and what we commonly mean when we speak of a drawing. In its wider sense, D. is used to describe what is in reality the most important feature of a finished painting of Raphael or Correggio, as well as of an outline by Flaxman or Retzsch. D., in this sense, has been termed the grammar of art. But the analogy is incomplete; for the one quality which is requisite in the application of grammar, is correctness, whereas D., even when correct, even when faultless, admits of degrees of perfection. It may be more or less powerful, more or less free, more or less graceful; and indeed there is no characteristic in which the great artists of the Italian and Flemish schools more unmistakably excell all their successors, than in the power and beauty of their drawing. Neither is there any feature which more unmis takably stamps the individuality of the artist upon the picture.

DRAWING-BOARD, a board on which drawing-paper is strained for painting on in water-colors. The paper is wetted for the purpose of being strained, and, when attached at the edges, it is permittted to dry and contract. Formerly, the drawing board was fitted into a frame, the edges of the wet paper being made fast by the pressure of the frame on the board. But the much simpler drawing-board which is now in use is made of a flat piece or pieces of wood, held together, and prevented from warping, by an edging of other pieces, the grain of which runs in the opposite direction. The wet paper is attached to the edges of the board with paste or thin glue, and when dry, becomes perfectly firm and flat.

DRAWING AND QUARTERING. The English punishment for treason requires that the offender be drawn to the place of execution on a hurdle (q.v.); that he be hanged by the neck till he be dead; that his head be severed from his body, and that body be divided into four parts, or quartered. The sovereign may, and now certainly would, by a warrant under the sign-manual, countersigned by a principal secretary of state, change the sentence into beheading. In the case of females, the quartering is dispensed with. Stephen's Commentaries, iv. 234. See TREASON.

DRAWING-ROOM (abbreviated from withdrawing-room), the name of an apartment to which persons repair on leaving the dinner-table; hence any room in which company is received. In this sense, the word is in general use in Great Britain, but in the United States "parlor" is usually applied to such an apartment, irrespective of its size. The drawing-room of a sovereign is an assembly at which both ladies and gentlemen appear, in distinction from a levee, to which gentlemen only are admitted. See LEVEE.

DRAW-PLATE, a steel plate with a graduated series of holes, through which metals are drawn in making them into wires or bars.

DRAYTON, MICHAEL, was b. in 1563 at Hartshill, in Warwickshire. Of the events of his life but little is known. He is supposed to have studied at the university of Cambridge, and to have been in the army when young. His earliest work, The Shepherd's Garland, was published in 1593. He afterwards published the Barons' Wars; England's Heroical Epistles, etc. The Polyolbion, the work by which he is best known, appeared in 1613. He was poet-laureate in 1626; he died in 1631, and was buried in Westminster abbey. As a poet, D. is but little known, save to readers like Charles Lamb, who delighted in the obscure corners of literature. His Polyolbion is a topographical poem; and passages from it, now and then met with in county histories and works of an antiquarian character, surprise the readers with their stately rhythm, their nervous force, and their felicity of diction. Vols. I., II., and III. of a complete edition of D.'s works, by the Rev. Richard Hooper, M.A., were published in 1876.

DRAYTON, WILLIAM HENRY, 1742-79; b. S. C.; educated at Oxford, England. In 1771, he was privy councilor of South Carolina; but when the revolution began, he espoused the popular cause, and became a member of the committee of safety. In 1775, he was president of the provincial congress, and the next year was elected chief-justice of South Carolina. He was a prominent member of the continental congress until his death. He left a minute narrative of the current events of the revolution.

DREAMING. In complete sleep, there is probably an entire absence of consciousness of external things. Usually, however, there is a certain amount of mental activity, of which we are more or less conscious at the time, and of which we have more or less subsequent remembrance. This is the state known as dreaming. The chief feature of

this state is "an entire absence of voluntary control over the current of thought, so that the principle of suggestion-one thought calling up another, according to the laws of association-has unlimited operation.' We seem to perform all the actions of life; we experience every kind of mental emotion, and sometimes our reasoning processes are remarkably clear and complete. Thus, when the mind, during sleep, takes up a train of thought on which it had been previously engaged during the preceding waking hours, intellectual efforts may be made during sleep which would be impossible in the waking state. Such cases, however, are not common. To name two instances (quoted by Dr. Carpenter in his essay on sleep in the Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology): Condorcet saw, in his dreams, the final steps of a difficult calculation which had puzzled him during the day; and Condillac states that, when engaged with his Cours d'Etude, he frequently developed and finished a subject in his dreams which he had broken off before retiring to rest.

Occasionally, but by no means commonly, dreams seem to possess a remarkable coherence and congruity in reference to the reasoning processes, or the combinations of the imagination. Most of our readers are probably acquainted with the incident narrated by Coleridge of himself, that his fragment entitled Kubla Khan was composed during sleep, which had come upon him in his chair whilst reading the following words in Purchas' Pilgrims: "Here the khan Kubla commanded a palace to be built, and a stately garden thereunto; and thus ten miles of fertile ground were inclosed within a wall.' Coleridge continued for about three hours apparently in a profound sleep, during which he had the most vivid impression that he had composed between 200 and 300 lines. The images, he says, "rose up before him as things, with a parallel production of the correspondent expressions, without any sensations or consciousness of effort." On awakening, he had so distinct a remembrance of the whole, that he seized his pen and wrote down the lines that are still preserved. Unfortunately, he was called away to attend to some business that lasted more than an hour, and on his return to his study, he found, to his intense mortification, that "though he still retained some vague and dim recollection of the general purport of the vision, yet, with the exception of some eight or ten scattered lines and images, all the rest had passed away like the images on the surface of a stream into which a stone had been cast." In other cases, a dream may leave a strong general impression on the mind, although particulars, even immediately on waking, cannot be recalled. Tartini is said to have composed the Devil's Sonata under the inspiration of a dream, in which the arch-fiend challenged him to a trial of skill. The dreamer lay entranced by the transcendent performance of his distinguished visitor; but on awakening and seizing his violin, although he was unable to reproduce the actual succession of notes, he produced from his general impressions the celebrated composition which we have named.

Generally, however, dreams are wanting in coherence; all probabilities, and even possibilities of "time, place, and circumstance" are violated. Friends long since dead appear and converse with us; and events long since past rise up before us with all the vividness of real existence. We may be conveyed to the antipodes, or even to worlds beyond our own, without the difficulty of the distance at all standing in the way. We are not aware of the grossest incongruities, probably because we are unable to test the probability of the phenomena by our ordinary experience; hence nothing that we see or do in a dream surprises us. Prof. Wheatstone observes, that "we may walk along the brink of a precipice, or see ourselves doomed to immediate destruction by the weapon of a foe, or the fury of a tempestuous sea, and yet not feel the slightest emotion of fear; though during the perfect activity of the brain we may be naturally disposed to the strong manifestation of this feeling. Again, we may see the most extraordinary object or event without surprise, perform the most ruthless crime without compunction, and see what in our waking-hours would cause us unmitigated grief, without the smallest feeling of sorrow;" and Cicero, who long previously had made D. his study, justly remarks (De Divinatione, 59), that if it had been so ordered by nature that we should actually do in sleep all that we dream, every man would have to be bound down on going to bed. Occasionally, however in place of this passive condition, the emotions may be highly excited; thus, for example, the sailor's wife is apt, especially in stormy weather, to dream of shipwreck, and to shriek with terror from its attendant miseries; and those who have once in their lives been exposed to some fearful danger, are apt to have the scene recalled to them in their dreams, either with all its appalling and life-like exactness, or possibly in a grotesque and impossible modification.

Although the predisposing causes of dreams may be sought for in more than one direction, they are probably in general referable to some peculiar condition of the body, and are often called into action through the agency of the external senses. Dr. Gregory relates, that having occasion to apply a bottle of hot water to his feet at bed-time, he dreamed that he was walking up Mt. Etna, and found the ground insufferably hot. Dr. Reid having had a blister applied to his head, dreamed that he was scalped by a party of Indians. M. Gizon de Buzereinges made a series of pre-arranged experiments, with the view of seeing how far he could determine at pleasure the character of his dreams. In his first experiment, having allowed the back of his head to be uncovered during sleep, he thought that he was at a religious ceremony in the open air; the custom of the country in which he lived being to keep the head covered, except on some rare occur

rences, among which was the performance of religious ceremonies. On waking, he felt cold at the back of the neck, as he frequently had felt when present at the real ceremonies. He repeated the exepriment in two days with the same result. In a third experi ment, he left his knees uncovered, and dreamed that he was traveling at night in the diligence; and all travelers know, he observes, that it is chiefly at the knees that they feel cold when traveling by that conveyance at night.

One of the most remarkable phenomena of D., is the rapidity with which long trains of thought pass through the mind. A dream requiring hours for its accomplishment, is begun and terminated in a few seconds. A person who was suddenly aroused from sleep by a few drops of water sprinkled in his face, dreamed of the events of an entire life in which happiness and sorrow were mingled, and which finally terminated with an altercation upon the borders of an extensive lake, in which his exasperated companion, after a considerable struggle, succeeded in plunging him. Dr. Abercrombie relates a similar case of a gentleman, who dreamed that he had enlisted as a soldier, joined his regiment, deserted, was apprehended, carried back, tried, condemned to be shot, and at last led out for execution. After all the usual preparations, a gun was fired; he awoke with the report, and found that a noise in an adjoining room had both produced the dream and aroused him from sleep. Dr. Carpenter mentions the case of a clergyman falling asleep in his pulpit during the singing of the psalm before the sermon, and awakening with the conviction that he must have slept for at least an hour, and that the congregation must have been waiting for him; but on referring to his psalm-book, he was consoled by finding that his slumber had lasted not longer than during the singing of a single line. Sir Benjamin Brodie, in his Psychological Inquiries (1854), mentions the following anecdote of the late lord Holland: "On an occasion when he was much fatigued, while listening to a friend who was reading aloud, he fell asleep and had a dream, the particulars of which it would have occupied him a quarter of an hour or longer to express in writing. After he woke, he found that he remembered the beginning of one sentence, while he actually heard the latter part of the sentence immediately following it, so that probably the whole time during which he had slept, did not occupy more than a few seconds. Many facts of the same kind are on record, and as the author from whom we have quoted, remarks, were we to pursue this subject, it would lead us to some curious speculations as to our estimate of time, and the difference. between the real and the apparent duration of life." It is from cases of this nature that lord Brougham has been led to the opinion, that all our dreams really take place in the act of falling asleep or of awaking. We cannot, however, explicitly accept this doctrine. 1. There is no sufficient proof of its being true. 2. We have a proof to the contrary in the fact, that it is common for people to moan and even talk in the middle of a sleep; and every one who has kept a dog must frequently have observed him dreaming (from the outward manifestations which he makes in the form of snarling or growling), though he still remains asleep. Some, on the other hand, have argued that the mind can never be entirely inactive, and that every one is dreaming throughout the whole period of sleep, although the dreams may not be remembered in the waking state. We know of no facts that can be adduced in favor of this hypothesis, and the following case goes strongly to disprove it: A woman, aged 26, who had lost a portion of the scalp, skull, and dura mater, so that a portion of her brain was exposed to view, was a patient in 1821 in the hospital at Montpellier. When she was in a dreamless state, or in profound sleep, her brain was comparatively motionless, and lay completely within its bony case; but when the sleep was imperfect, and the mind was agitated by dreams, her brain moved and protruded from the skull, forming what is termed cerebral hernia. This protrusion was greatest when the dreams, as she reported, were most vivid; and when she was perfectly awake, especially if actively engaged in conversation, it attained its highest development, nor did this protrusion occur in jerks, alternating with recessions, as if caused by arterial action, but remained permanent while the conversation continued. If the data of this case are to be depended on, the appearance of the brain during profound sleep seems to indicate that during that state there is a total or nearly total suspension of the mental faculties.

The author of Psychological Inquiries suggests the question: Do dreams answer any purpose in the economy of living beings? We regret that he has not given us a very definite answer, but he obviously inclines to the view that they cannot be purposeless. No one has hitherto offered any certain explanation of the uses of the spleen, of the thyroid gland, or of the supra-renal capsules; yet no one believes the formation of these organs to be merely incidental, or doubts that they have some special (although at present unknown) function to perform. "Dreams are," he observes, "at any rate, an exercise of the imagination. We may well conceive that one effect of them may be to increase the activity of that faculty during our waking-hours, and it would be presumptuous to deny that they may not answer some purpose beyond this in the economy of percipient and thinking beings."

Dreams have, in all ages and countries, been believed in as indications of the future; and of all forms of superstition, this is perhaps the most excusable. Whatever is mysterious as to its cause, and beyond the power of the will, appears as supernatural; and what more so than dreams! The thoughts in dreams, too, arise out of the past and present circumstances of the dreamer, and therefore are not altogether without connec

tion with his future destiny, as most other omens are. In the Homeric age, it was firmly

held that "dreams come from Zeus." In the most ancient civilized communities of which we have any record—those of Egypt and Babylon-to interpret the monarch's dreams was one of the most important state offices, and was confided to a college of wise men. A common way of consulting the Greek and Roman oracles (q.v.), was for the inquirer to sleep a night in the temple, after performing sacrificial and other rites, when his questions were supposed to be answered in dreams. Grave philosophers wrote treatises on the interpretation of dreams, as they did on astrology. Even Bacon, although he confesses that the interpretation of dreams is mixed with numerous extrava gances, yet speaks as if he thought that something might be made of it. In modern times, and among European nations, dreams are seldom heeded except by the very ignorant or superstitious; and "as idle as a dream" has become a proverb. Nothing can be conceived more arbitrary than the pretended rules of interpretation-e.g., "that to dream of gold is good luck, but of silver, ill." See Brand's Popular Antiquities, by Ellis, where a "Dictionary of Dreams" is given. As to the actual coincidences that sometimes happen between dreams and events, it is only surprising, considering the countless fancies that are passing through our minds while asleep, that the coincidences are not ten times more numerous than they are.

DREBBEL, CORNELIS VAN, 1572-1634; a Dutch inventor of whose life little is known. He seems to have been a favorite at court, and tutor to the son of Ferdinand II. In the thirty years' war he was arrested and saved from execution only through interference of James I. of England. After 1620, he resided in London, where, it is said, he invented the compound microscope and an air thermometer with its bulb filled with water. It was reported also that he showed the king a glass globe in which, by means of the four elements, he had produced perpetual motion; and that by means of other machinery he imitated lightning, thunder, rain, and cold, and was able to speedily exhaust a river or lake. He made some discoveries in dyes, which were used by the founders of the Gobelin manufactures.

DREDGE, a machine for dragging or dredging the bottom of seas, rivers, or lakes, in order to bring up oysters and other animals that lie on the bottom. The common oyster-dredge is a bag-net, made of iron rings, linked together to form the meshes; the mouth is made of sheet-iron, which acts as a scoop when the dredge is let down and drawn along the bottom as the boat sails on. The dredge has of late been very exten. sively used by the naturalist with very important results, among the most remarkable of which are those obtained by the Challenger expedition, showing the existence of animal life in great variety at depths where it had before been considered impossible. The ordinary naturalist's dredge is of a lighter construction than that of the oysterfisher, and its meshes should be smaller. For dredging a sandy bottom, the best form of dredge is one like the net used by the Kentish shrimpers. These are twine nets, bagshaped, and of the length of the boat. The lower side of the mouth of the net is stretched upon a wooden pole, and the other side is held up while the lower is drawn along the bottom. The quantity and variety of animals drawn up by these nets are astonishing. The dredge used for soles resembles the shrimp-net; but all dredges must be modified to suit the bottom on which they are used.

Naturalists generally employ an instrument constructed on the general plan of an oyster-dredge for obtaining specimens of animals living at the bottom of the sea, to determine their structure and geographical distribution. In working, the dredge is slipped gently over the side of the boat, either from the bow or the stern. When it reaches the bottom and begins to scrape, an experienced hand upon the rope can usually detect by the tremor of the line when the dredge is passing over an irregular surface. The boat should move not more than a mile in an hour. The dredge may remain down from 15 to 20 minutes, within which time, in favorable circumstances, it may be fairly filled. It comes up variously freighted, according to the locality, and the contents are examined. The scientific value of dredging depends mainly upon two things: the care with which objects procured are preserved and labeled for future identification, and the accuracy with which all the circumstances of the dredging-the position, the depth, the nature of the ground, the date, temperature, etc.—are recorded

Until the middle of the 18th c. the little that was known of the inhabitants of the sea beyond low-water mark seems to have been gathered almost entirely from objects thrown on the beach after storms, and from the chance captures of fishermen. The dredge was used to aid natural history, first by Otto Frederick Müller, in the researches which furnished material for his Descriptions and History of the rarer and less known Animals of Denmark and Norway, 1779. Thenceforward much advance was made in knowledge of deep-sea life, mainly by the efforts of the British association; but the first important undertaking was in the winter of 1872. At that time The Chal lenger, a steam-corvette of 2,306 tons, and 1234 horse-power, was sent out to investi gate the physical and biological conditions of the great ocean basins. This vessel was thoroughly equipped, and carried a corps of distinguished scientists. Dredging was done from the main yard-arm. A strong pendant was attached by a hook to the cap of the main-mast, and, by a tackle to the yard-arm, a compound arrangement of 55 to 70 of Hodge's patent accumulators was hung to the pendant, and beneath it a block through

which the dredging-rope passed. The donkey-engines for hauling in the dredging and sounding gear were placed at the foot of the main-mast on the port side. They consisted of a pair of direct-acting high-pressure horizontal engines, in combination of 18horse power nominal. Instead of a connecting rod to each, a guide was fixed to the end of the piston-rod, with a brass block working up and down the slot of the guide. The crank axles ran through the center of the blocks, and the movable block, obtaining a backward and forward motion from the piston-rod, acting on the crank as a connecting rod would do. This style of engine is commonly used for pumping, the pump-rods being attached to the guide on the opposite side from the piston-rod. At one end of the crank a small-toothed wheel was attached, which drove one thrice the multiple on a horizontal shaft extending nearly across the deck, and about 3 ft. and 6 in. above it. At each end of this shaft a large and small drum were fixed, the larger having three sheaves cast upon it of different sizes; the small being a common barrel only. To these drums the line was led, two or three turns being taken round the drum selected. In hauling in, the dredging-rope was taken to a gin-block secured to a spar on the forecastle, then aft to the drum of the donkey-engine on the port side, then to a leading-block on the port side of the quarter-deck, and across the deck to a leading-block on the starboard side corresponding in diameter with the drum used on the port side, and from this it was finally taken by the hands and coiled. The strain is of course greatest at the yardarm and the first leading-block, and by this arrangement it is gradually diminished as the line passes round the series of blocks and sheaves. A change made latterly in the handing of the dredge had certain advantages. Instead of attaching the weights directly to the dredge-rope, and sending them down with the dredge, a "toggle," a smal spindle-shaped piece of hard wood, was attached transversely to a rope at the required distance, 200 to 300 fathoms in advance of the dredge. A "messenger," consisting of a figure of eight of rope, with two large thimbles in the loops, had one of its thimbles slipped over the chain before the dredge was hung, and the other thimble made fast to a lizard. When the dredge was well down and had taken its direction from the drift of the ship, the weights, usually six 28-lb. deep-sea leads in three canvas covers, were attached to the other thimble of the traveler, which was then cut adrift from the lizard and allowed to spin down the line until it was brought up by the toggle. By this plan the dredge took a somewhat longer time to go down; but after it was adopted not a single case occurred of the fouling of the dredge in the dredge-rope, a misadventure which had occurred more than once before, and which was attributed to the weights getting ahead of the dredge in going down, and pulling it down upon them entangled in the double part of the line.

The great risk in dredging in very deep water is that of the dredge running down nearly vertically and sinking at once into the soft mud, and remaining imbedded until hauling in commences. During the earlier part of the voyage of the Challenger this accident frequently defeated, at least partially, the object of the operation; and, after various suggestions for modifying the dredge, it was proposed to try some form of the trawl in order to insure, so far as possible, the capture of any of the larger marine animals which might be present, and thus to gain a better general idea of the nature of the fauna. A 15-ft. beam-trawl was sent down off cape St. Vincent to a depth of 600 fathoms; the experiment looked hazardous, but the trawl duly came up, and contained, with many of the larger invertebrata, several fishes. The trawl seemed to answer so well that it was tried again a little further s. in 1090 fathoms, and again it was perfectly successful; and during the remainder of the voyage it was employed almost as frequently, and in nearly as deep water (3,125 fathoms in the Pacific), as Ball's dredge was in the Atlantic, where the deepest haul was at 3,150 fathoms. During the voyage of the Challenger, a course of about 70,000 nautical miles was traversed in three years and a half, and 362 observing stations were established at intervals as nearly uniform as circumstances would permit; and at the greater number of these, dredging or some modifica tion of the process was successfully performed-52 times at a depth greater than 2,000 fathoms, and thrice at depths beyond 3,000 fathoms. So fully convinced were the Challenger officers that they could dredge at any depth, that it was only want of time and daylight which prevented their doing so at their deepest sounding, 4,575 fathoms. The Atlantic was crossed five times, and an erratic route through the Pacific gave a good idea of the conditions of the abysses of that ocean, while in the s. Indian ocean dredging and trawling were carried down close to the Antarctic ice-barrier.

Animal life was

The results of this expedition were of the most interesting nature. found to exist at all depths, although probably in diminishing abundance as the depth becomes extreme; and in various parts of the world at depths beyond 400 or 500 fathoms the fauna had much the same general character. The species usually differed in widely separated areas, but the great majority of forms, if not identical, were so nearly allied that they might be regarded as representative and genetically related. Although all marine invertebrate classes were represented, echinoderms in their different orders, sponges and crustacea preponderated, while corals and mollusca were comparatively scarce. In the two groups first named, many forms occurred allied to families which had been previously regarded as extinct or nearly so; thus among the echinoderms, stalked crinoids were by no means rare, and many species of regular echinidea related to the chalk genus echinothuria, and many irregular species allied to ananchytes and dysaster,