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times nearly the same, as the gate is opened only at full tide when the level without and within is the same. If a lock is employed, vessels can pass in and out at all stages of the tide, but this does not materially affect the level of the water inside the dock. In an open dock the tide continually lowers or raises the vessel, and this interferes to some degree with the work of loading or unloading. The closed docks are free from this inconvenience, while a greater advantage is found in the absence of currents. In a larger sense the term dock is also applied to a basin or enclosed water-space for the storage of floating timber, or the safe keeping of river steamers, barges or canal boats laid up for the winter, and by a further extension is made to include the wharves and warehouses on or in the neighborhood of a dock. The great rise and fall of the tides about Great Britain has brought into use a remarkable system of docks for the loading and unloading of vessels in such ports as London, Liverpool and Glasgow, which are not required in American ports. To explain this it is only necessary to state that the rise and fail of the Thames at London Bridge, which is the head of navigation for sea commerce, is 19 feet, while in Liverpool the variation between high and low water is much greater. The shipping of London and that of Liverpool are of nearly equal magnitude, and the docks of both cities form wonderful networks of basins, those of Liverpool, taken collectively, being more modern than those of London. There are also extensive docks on the opposite side of the Mersey at Birkenhead. There are 28 docks controlled by the Mersey Docks and Harbor Board, the principal being: North and South Carriers, Canada, Huskisson, Sandon, Wellington, Bramley-Moore, Nelson, Salisbury, Collingwood, Stanley, Clarence, Trafalgar, Victoria, Waterloo, Princess, Georges, Canning, Albert, Salthouse, King's, Wapping, Queen's, Coburg, Brunswick, Toxteth, Harrington, and Herculaneum. These vast docks were begun about a century and a half ago, but the great development has been, of course, within the present century. The combined dock area of Liverpool and Birkenhead is about 425 acres of water area and the quay line measures 18 miles in Liverpool and 9 miles in Birkenhead, or 27 miles in all. Among these basins are numerous graving docks, the total bottom length of which is about 15,000 ft. The excellence and abundance of Portland cement has been the cause of making most of the later docks to be built of concrete, and throughout, these docks give evidence of the most substantial construction.

The dry docks of the Thames are very numerous and of almost every size from 140 feet on the blocks up to 520 feet. A great many of them are built of wood, and wooden gates are common, but the principal docks are of masonry or concrete. The most extensive docks on the Thames are those recently constructed at Tilbury, about 15 miles below London. These docks comprise a tidal basin, the entrance to which is 100. yards in width. The entrance to the main basin is through a lock 80 feet in width. The walls are of concrete and the gates of the large lock are made of iron plates, which are opened and closed by hydraulic power. Four large graving docks form a feature of these works. These may be filled with water from the tidal basin or from the main dock through culverts. The total area of the outer tidal basin is 19 acres. It contains 26 ft. of water at low tide and 46 feet at high tide. The main basin covers about 23 acres and has a depth of 38 feet. Three branch docks contain 94, 9 and 11 acres. These figures are sufficient to illustrate the magnitude of the work. The city of Glasgow also may be mentioned as having large dock accommodation. There are various kinds of docks used in repairing and building ships, such as depositing dock, dry dock, floating dock, graving dock, sectional dock, and so forth. A depositing dock is a caisson or an elevator for lifting vessels from the water and placing them upon stagings or wharves erected for the purpose. The lifting apparatus consists of a series of caissons or pontoons, placed side by side and joined at one end to another pontoon that, with a series of upright tubular structures, forms a girder and makes the back of a comb-like structure, of which the pontoons are the teeth. In the rear of the girder is a large floating pontoon, connected with it by two rows of heavy booms that, being pivoted at each end, serve as a series of parallel bars and keep the entire structure upright while afloat. To lift a vessel, a row of blocks with shores and chocks is arranged on top of all the pontoons. The air is allowed to escape, and the entire structure, except the float in the rear, sinks until the vessel can be floated over the pontoons. When the vessel is in position the water is pumped out of the pontoons, and they all rise together, lifting the vessel out of the water.

DRY DOCK, a dock or an excavated basin adjoining navigable water, provided with a gate, and so arranged that after the docking of a ship the water can be exhausted from it. Such docks are long and narrow, with sloping sides formed into steps. The pioneer in the building of timber dry docks in this country was Mr. J. E. Simpson, who for many years upheld the superiority of wood over stone for these structures. Their original cost is comparatively low. They resist the action of frost much better than do stone docks, and consequently the repairs required are less. In some weather ice is not so liable to form and remain upon wood as on stone, and they are lighter, so that work can be carried on in them longer than in stone docks. The first dock of this type was built in Boston in 1853 and 1854, and is still in use and in fair condition. At the government navy yards timber dry docks are replacing the older granite ones. These docks represent an excavated basin or slip lined throughout with Georgia pine timber, with sides and inner end sloping to the floor. The outer end is open, and is provided with heavy sill and abutment timbers. An iron caisson fits this opening and acts as a gate. The general dimensions are as follows: Length over all coping, 530 feet; length over all inside of caisson, 500 feet;

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width on top amidships, 130 feet 4 inches; width on floor amidships, 50 feet; width on floor at entrance, 53 feet; depth of gate sill below high water, 25.5 feet; depth at centre, 25.7 feet. The floor, 460 feet by 50 feet, is surrounded by eight-inch tongued and grooved sheet piling. In good ground the practice has been to drive this down 7.5 feet, but in some instances, notably at the Brooklyn navy yard, where quicksands have been struck, it was driven down to 45 feet. The area included in this sheet piling contains round piles, driven in rows, three feet between centres transversely, and four feet in the direction of the length of the dock. Each row of piles carries a longitudinal square timber of Georgia pine. Upon these rest cross timbers three feet between centres, to which the bottom planking is spiked or bolted. Special rows of piles are driven to carry the keel blocks; a space ten feet wide beneath the centre of the dock contains extra closely spaced piling for this purpose; the timber used is generally about one foot square, and the piling one foot in diameter. Under the floor and surrounding the heads of the piles is a bed of Portland cement concrete, five feet thick at the centre, and rising toward each side between the transverse timbers to the height of one foot, giving a maximum thickness of six feet. Any water that may find its way thereto runs down to the central axis of the dock, owing to this slope. From each side of the floor the sides rise in steps with a slope of about 39°. They are lined with pieces of 10-inch plank, 11 inches in greatest height, but chamfered off at their rear and lower corner, so that their vertical face is only 3 inches high. They run horizontally around the dock, forming steps 8 inches high and 10 inches wide upon the parallel sides. These pieces, termed alters, are of Georgia pine, and are bolted to side-brace timbers, whose lower ends abut upon the floor timbers, and also against square longitudinal timbers bolted to the floor and representing the bottom alter. From the coping line tongued and grooved sheet piling is driven well below the floor level of the dock, so as to completely surround it. These docks are closed by floating caissons, which are iron vessels with sloping stern pieces that exactly fit the dock entrance. Á heavy India-rubber packing is carried around the entrance sills and abutments against which the caissons bear. Two sills are provided, an outer and an inner one, which enables repairs to the inner or main sill to be attended to. For emptying the Brooklyn dock very powerful steam machinery has been provided. It consists of two centrifugal pumps of 42 inches diameter, driven by two vertical engines 28 inches diameter of cylinder by 24 inches stroke. Three steel boilers 13 feet in diameter by 11 feet in length supply the steam. The pumps have a capacity of 80,000 gallons a minute and can empty the dock in one hour and a half, when no vessel is in it. Open sluice-ways are made in the concrete floors on each side of the keelway, which lead to a drainage culvert and pumping well. The filling is done through the caisson culvert, with valves run through its body transversely. The caisson having been hauled across the mouth of the dock, water is admitted until it sinks into place, thus closing the dock water-tight. The pumps are then started and the water pumped out of the dock; as the ship settles down on the keel blocks she is kept upright by means of shores from her sides to the steps of the dock.

FLOATING DOCK, a capacious wooden or iron structure generally rectangular, and intended to serve as a graving dock. Sometimes floating docks are built in water-tight compartments, and can be sunk to the required depth by the admission of water to these compartments. When the vessel is docked, the floating dock is raised by pumping, till its bottom touches the keel of the ship. Shores are then added to keep the ship in position, and the dock is raised still higher. Instead of compartments, water-tight tanks are occasionally used, and the dock is raised and lowered on the same principle. A floating dock may also be made so heavy as to sink of its own weight deep enough to receive the largest ship, and be raised by means of empty water-tight tanks, which lift dock and ship by their buoyancy.

The hydraulic dry dock at San Francisco, into which the largest ocean steamers are lifted from the water to the level of the land, has a platform 450 long and 66 feet wide, composed of 36 steel transverse girders, 6 feet 4 inches deep. This is elevated by 36 hydraulic cylinders, one opposite each end of the girders, cach cylinder containing a plunger with a vertical movement of 15 feet, and a lifting power of 8000 tons, and moved by hydraulic power.

Two vertical engines of 12-inch diam. and 16-inch stroke, making 120 revolutions, maintain the water pressure. An automatic accumulator regulates the steam furnished, and massive steel chocks work in harmony with the plungers, sliding into place when the platform with its load is lifted.

GRAVING DOCKS, are so called because they are used in graving or cleaning the bottom of ships. See DRY DOCK, above.

HALF-TIDE DOCK is a basin connecting two or more docks and communicating with the entrance basin.

SECTIONAL DOCK is a floating dock composed of a succession of pontoons or caissons attached to a platform below the vessel. Steam-pumps are used to remove the water from the caisson, and, as they float, the vessel is raised. The rise and fall of the tide makes docks in England of somewhat more importance than in this country, which accounts for the elaborate docking systems on the Mersey and on the Thames. There are, however, some very fine docks in this country for the more convenient handling of merchandise, such as grain, sugar and cotton, and for the care of valuable goods. The

Atlantic docks and the Erie basin, in Brooklyn, are examples. The Atlantic docks were commenced in 1841 and were several years in construction. More than 200 acres of land were secured by the Atlantic Dock Company, and 40 acres of low marsh land were converted into a basin. Excavation over the whole 40 acres was done mainly with dredging machines and was carried to a depth of 20 feet below low water mark. The outer enclosure was made with piers of cribwork, consisting of timber filled with stone which were sunk into trenches 30 feet below high water mark. The cribs were 25 feet thick at the base and were placed 150 feet apart, that being the width of the pier. In the basin are a number of wooden piers where vessels are loaded. Upon the cribwork piers large stone warehouses are built. On the inland side is the commercial wharf, 2000 feet in length. The Erie basin, near the Atlantic dock, contains two graving docks. The granite dry docks in the government yards are among the finest in the world, but having been built before the present types of vessels were introduced, they are too short and not of sufficient width for modern requirements. They cost when new, about two millions of dollars. Most of the foreign nations have very extensive docking facilities at their navy yards, those recently finished by the Italians being among the most perfect in their fittings and appliances.

DOCKET, in law, originally signified a summary, in very brief form, of a document endorsed upon it or attached to it, so that its tenor might be known without complete perusal. It is probable that these memoranda in time came to be transcribed in a book to which the name docket was then applied. This was particularly the case with records of judgments, and in the United States a register of money judgments is called a docket. Thus, with a judgment after a mortgage foreclosure and sale, only the money deficiency, if there be one, for which the defendant is still liable personally, is docketed; and the docket serves as a judgment lien on his real property within the registration of the court. But the main use of the word docket in the United States is as the name of a list of causes before the court for trial, entered in the order in which the case is to be called, in a book kept by the clerk of the court. Such a docket is called by the practice of some courts the calendar. The docket or calendar is called over at the opening of the court each day-or sometimes once a week--and at the request of counsel the case may in the discretion of the judge be removed to a less advanced stage on the docket or put on that for the next term of court. A special use of the word in England is for a copy of a chancery decree left with the proper clerk of the court for enrollment. The derivation of the word is the same as that of the verb to dock. Obsolete forms of the word are docquet, doquet and dogget.

DOCTOR (Lat. docere, to teach), a teacher. Originally, the word doctor was used, in accordance with its etymological derivation, to signify a teacher in general, and it was not till the 12th c. that it became a title of honor for the learned, irrespective of the function of communicating knowledge. It had frequently appended to it, in those early days, some additional expression intended to characterize the peculiar gift of its possessor. Thus, Thomas Aquinas was called the Doctor Angelicus; Bonaventura, the Doctor Seraphicus; Alexander de Hales, the Doctor Irrefragabilis; Duns Scotus, the Doctor Subtilis; Roger Bacon, the Doctor Mirabilis; William Occam, the Doctor Singularis; Gregory of Rimini, the Doctor Authenticus; Joseph Gerson, the Doctor Christianissimus; Thomas Bradwardine, the Doctor Profundus; and the like. The word had long been used, even in the universities, as a general expression for a teacher before it came to designate a degree or rank in the learned hierarchy to which only the united body of the teachers could advance or promote the candidate. These formal promotions commenced at Bologna in the 12th c., and the learned Irnerius, the regenerator of the Roman law at that period, is said to have introduced the ceremonial which was afterwards universally adopted. Irnerius, however, is a sort of mythical hero in university history, and such statements with regard to him must be received with caution. See PROMOTION. The university of Paris almost immediately followed in the footsteps of Bologna, the first reception of doctors having taken place in the year 1145, in favor of Peter Lombard and Gilbert de la Porrée, the greatest theologians of the day. Subsequently to this period, the emperors were in use expressly to confer upon the universities the right of appointing doctors of laws by their authority and in their name. The example of the emperors was speedily followed by the popes, who conferred corresponding rights with reference to the canon law. From the 11th to the 13th c., there seems reason to believe that, both in Italy and France, the terms master and doctor were pretty nearly synonymous. In the German universities, the professors of theology were more commonly known as masters; and in the beginning of the 15th c., in accordance with the practice of the university of Prague, the distinction was pretty consistently made between doctors of law and medicine, and masters of theology and philosophy. In modern times, the title of doctor has been applied almost everywhere to the three faculties of theology, law, and medicine. In Germany, it extends to that of philosophy, in which, in this country, the older title of master is still retained. The doctor's degree is, in general, conferred at the instance of the dean of the faculty to which it appertains. It is granted either on examination, and after the ancient form, at least, of publicly

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defending a learned thesis in Latin has been observed, or else it is an honorary degree, conferred in consideration of the general reputation of the recipient for eminence in some particular branch of learning, philosophy, or science. See DEGREE. In Germany, the doctor ranks before the untitled nobility and next to the knight; and amongst them. selves, doctors take the rank of the faculties to which they respectively belong, the first being theology, the second law, and the third medicine. In Oxford and Cambridge, and recently also in the German universities, doctors of music have been created. In the latter country, also, learned ladies have occasionally shared the honors of the doctorate. Dorothea Schlözer received the degree of doctor of philosophy from the university of Göttingen in 1787; Mariane Charlotte von Siebold, that of medicine from Giessen in 1817; and Johanna Wittenbach, in philosophy, from Marburg in 1827. Of the four ancient degrees of bachelor (q.v.), master of arts (q. v.), licentiate (q.v.), and doctor, the modern university of France has retained only those of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor. Up to the period of the revolution, the highest consideration attached to the title of doctor of the Sorbonne (q.v.)—that famous theological faculty, which was called "the perpetual council of the Gallican church," and of which the present faculty of theology of the academy of Paris is but a feeble and lifeless reproduction. But though the degrees of the Sorbonne continued to enjoy, and apparently to merit, some degree of respect, such was by no means the case with those of the other schools of learning in France. Furettière, in his dictionary, defines a bachelor as a man who learns, and a doctor as a man who forgets. The ridicule of Voltaire, La Fontaine, Le Sage with his Doctor Sangrado, and Molière in the Malade Imaginaire, will readily occur to our readers as illustrating the position which was then held very generally by French doctors.

In England, the doctor's degree was not introduced into the universities till the reign of John or of Henry III. At first it was a very rare and highly prized honor, and the ceremony of conferring it was attended by scenes of feasting and revelry, of which curious accounts will be found in Antony à Wood's History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford. Colored engravings of the dresses worn by doctors of the several faculties at Oxford and Cambridge are given in Ackermann's histories of these univer sities. As to professional uses of the degree of doctor of civil law, see DOCTORS COMMONS.

DOCTORS' COMMONS, formerly the college of the doctors of civil law in London, wherein the court of admiralty and the principal ecclesiastical courts were held. It was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, dean of the arches, previous to which time the doctors had lived in Paternoster row. The original building was burned in the great fire in 1666, when the doctors removed for a time to Exeter house. After some time the commons was rebuilt, and the doctors returned to their former quarters. The courts which had been wont to hold their sittings at doctors commons are-the court of arches, the archdeacon's court, the prerogative court, the faculty court, the court of delegates, and the court of admiralty. The prerogative court is now amalgamated in the probate court (q.v.), and the court of delegates (q.v.) is transferred to the judicial committee of the privy council. At the time when these courts were all in full operation, their times of session were regulated by terms, as in the courts of equity and common law, a certain day in the week being assigned to each court for hearing its causes. The court of arches, the archdeacon's court, the faculty court, and the court of admiralty, have been changed, and no longer continue to exercise their functions in this once famous spot. The court of arches (so called from having sat in arcubus, or under the arches or bows of Bow church, Cheapside) is the court of appeal belonging to the archbishop of Canterbury. The judge in this court is styled dean of the arches, and he has jurisdiction, as the archbishop's principal official, in all ecclesiastical causes within the province of Canterbury. He has original jurisdiction, also, in certain causes by letters of request (see LETTERS). It was by virtue of letters of request that matrimonial causes were tried in the court of arches; but this branch of its jurisdiction is now removed to the divorce court. The archdeacon's court is an inferior court for the consideration of ecclesiastical questions occurring within the archdeaconry. For an account of the other courts mentioned in this article, see the several heads to which they refer. The practitioners in the several courts to which we have alluded were the doctors of civil law, called in the ecclesiastical courts advocates and proctors, who performed similar duties to those of attorneys or solicitors in the courts of law and equity. Both classes of practitioners required, in order to their admission to practice, to obtain the fiat of the archbishop, and afterwards to be duly admitted by the dean of the arches. The form of admission was in both cases attended with much ceremony. The doctor elect was introduced to the presiding judge by two doctors habited in their scarlet robes. The candidate then made a short Latin speech, and was admitted to practice in the courts. The habit of the doc. tors is a scarlet robe with a hood, trimmed with taffeta or white minever. The proctors were, in like manner, introduced by two senior proctors. In 1857, power was given by 20 and 21 Vict. c. 77, to dissolve the college of doctors commons and sell the property. The proctors received compensation, and all solicitors are allowed to act as proctors, and all proctors were turned into solicitors, all being alike solicitors of the supreme court, 21 and 22 Vict. cc. 95, 108; 23 and 24 Vict. c. 27; 33 and 34 Vict. c. 28, s. 30; 40 and 41 Vict. c. 25, s. 17. Nevertheless the old names continue, and will no doubt

only by degrees cease to be used in reference to ecclesiastical courts and proceedings. For a full account of doctors commons, see Stowe's London.

DOCTRINAIRE (a French term derived from doctrine) signifies, properly, the scientific taking up and exposition of a subject, as opposed to a treatment which is merely external, and which rests on accidental characteristics. In general, however, it is used as a term of reproach, to characterize views which are pedantic, schoolmasterly, and unprac tical. In this sense it was applied in France, during the restoration, by the reactionary court-party to the fraction of the parliamentary opposition, who supported scientific doctrines of constitutional liberty against the arbitrary will of the monarch. This party, which had its rallying-point in the salons of the duc de Broglie, was led in the chamber by Royer Collard, and supported in the press and before the public by Guizot, and the younger members of what afterwards became the Orleans party. The development of the constitution on the basis of the charte of Louis XVIII., was the watchword of those men; but their real inspiration was derived from England. When the revolution of 1830 occurred, they became the advisers and ministers of the king of the French, and were more deeply imbued with the principles of constitutional monarchy than any other political party that has ever existed in France. The true fathers of the doctrinaires were Mounier, Lally Tollendal, Clermont Tonnerre, Talleyrand, and the abbé Montesquiou; and the cradle of the party was the original comité of the constitution, which, about twenty-five years before, elaborated the charte of 1814. Its later representatives found a center in the court of the exiled queen Marie Amalie at Claremont, and a vigorous supporter in her gifted son, the duc d'Aumale.

DOCTRINE. See DOGMA.

DOD, ALBERT BALDWIN, D.D.; 1805-45; son of Thaddeus; graduate of Princeton, and tutor in the college, 1827-29 and in 1830 chosen professor of mathematics. He lectured upon political economy and architecture.

DOD, DANIEL, 1788-1823; b. Va., educated at Rutgers college, and especially devoted to the construction of steam machinery. He began when steam navigation was in its infancy, and soon became one of the most successful engine-builders in the country. He met his death in consequence of an explosion of a boiler on a steamboat in which he was experimenting on the East river, New York.

DODD, MOSES WOODRUFF, b. New Jersey, 1814; graduated at the coll. of New Jersey, 1837; studied theology at Princeton and Union theol. seminaries, 1837-39; publisher and bookseller in New York, 1839–70.

DODD, The Rev. WILLIAM, LL.D., was b. in 1729 at Bourne, in Lincolnshire; was educated, in the first place at a private school; and was admitted in 1745, as a sizar to Clare college, Cambridge, where after five years of study, he took his degree of B.A. Shortly after, he removed to London, received orders from the bishop of that city, and soon after gained a reputation as a popular preacher and as a successful littérateur. Through his celebrity as a divine and man of letters, and by means of flattering the great, he succeeded well in London, and in 1763 was appointed tutor to Philip Stanhope, the fifth earl of Chesterfield. His habits, however, were very expensive, and an income of £800 per annum, even when augmented by the produce of his literary labors, was not sufficient to supply his wants. This extravagance proved his ruin, as it tempted him to forge the signature of his former pupil, the earl of Chesterfield, to a bond for £4,200. For this crime he was arrested in Feb., 1777, and though he refunded the money, he was tried, convicted, and executed on the 27th of July. His writings are numerous and varied. His Beauties of Shakespeare (2 vols., Lond. 1753) is well known, as are also his Reflections on Death (1763), and Thoughts on Death.

DODDER, Cuscuta, a genus of plants referred by some botanists to the natural order convolvulace, and regarded by others as the type of a small distinct natural order cuscutacea; which differs from convolvulaceæ in the habit of the plants, leafless climbing parasites, with flowers in dense clusters; in having scales on the tube of the corolla alternate with its segments; and in having a spiral thread-like embryo, lying in a mass of fleshy albumen, whilst the cotyledons are so small that the embryo has been described as destitute of them. There are about 50 known species of cuscutacea, chiefly found in the warmer temperate parts of the globe. The name D. is often extended to all of them. One or two species of cuscuta are natives of Britain, parasitic on leguminous plants, heath, thyme, hops, nettles, etc. A species of D. is very injurious to crops of flax in Germany, and leguminous crops often suffer from this cause in the s. of Europe. The seed of D. germinates in the ground, but the stem soon seeks to attach itself to plants by little rootlets which it sends out, and the original root dies. The appearance of D. has been described as resembling "fine, closely tangled, wet catgut.”

DODDER-LAURELS, Cassythacea, parasitic plants appearing generally like dodders, but in many respects resembling laurels. They grow only in hot regions, where they supplant the dodders. Only a single species is known in the United States.

DODDRIDGE, a co. in n.w. West Virginia, crossed by a division of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad; 475 sq.m.; pop. '90, 12,183, with colored. The surface is hilly; chief business, agriculture. Co. seat, West Union.

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