Doge.

ness of fur, or other such character, which will not associate kinds that are in other respects widely dissimilar, and separate some that are nearly allied.

Col. Hamilton Smith arranges domestic dogs in six groups or sections: 1. "The wolf dogs," including the Siberian dog, Esquimaux_dog, Iceland dog, Newfoundland dog, Nootka dog, sheep dog, great wolf dog, great St. Bernard dog, Pomeranian dog, etc. 2. "The watch and cattle dogs," including the German boar-hound, Danish dog, matin, dog of the North American Indians, etc. 3. "The greyhounds," including the Brinjaree dog, different kinds of greyhound, Irish hound, lurcher, Egyptian street dog, etc. 4. "The hounds," including the bloodhound, old southern hound, staghound, foxhound, harrier, beagle, pointer, setter, spaniel, springer, cocker, Blenheim dog, water dog or poodle, etc. 5. The cur dogs," including the terrier and its allies. 6. "The mastiffs," including different kinds of mastiff, the bull dog, pug dog, etc. Col. H. Smith does not include in any of these groups the dholes, dingo, etc., which he even separates from the genus canis.-Mr. Richardson arranges dogs in three great groups, "indicated by the least variable part of their osteological structure, cranial development." 1. Including the Irish wolf dog, highland deerhound, all kinds of greyhounds, and the tiger hound, characterized by convergent parietal bones, an elongated muzzle, and high and slender form. 2. Including the great Dane, the French matin, the pariah of India, the bloodhound, staghound, foxhound, harrier, beagle, pointers, terriers, turnspit, Newfoundland dog, Labrador dog, Pomeranian dog, Esquimaux dog, Siberian dog, Iceland dog, shepherd's dog, etc., characterized by parallel parietal bones, and generally by much acuteness of smell. 3. Including mastiffs, the great St. Bernard dog, bull dog, pug dog, etc., characterized by sensibly divergent parietal bones, bulk of body, robust structure, and combative propensities.

See Burges, American Kennel and Sporting Dogs (1876); Walsh, The Dog in Health and Disease (1879); Shaw, Illustrated Book of the Dog (1884).

DOG. In law a distinction is made in regard to the rights of property in animals between those of a wild nature (feræ natura) and those of a domestic kind; the dog belongs to the latter classification. In the United States statutes exist in probably all the states which directly or by implication recognize the right of property in dogs and permit such ownership, though usually under special regulations. Often restrictions are laid down also by municipal laws. The right of property implied in the ownership of dogs carries with it the responsibility for illegal injury caused by the animal, and also makes the theft of it a punishable offense. Both by common law and by statute the keeping of vicious or dangerous dogs is in itself illegal unless proper precautions are taken to make any injury by them impossible. One who maintains a vicious or dangerous animal in such a way as to threaten bodily harm to his neighbors may be indicted for maintaining a common nuisance. Local restrictions, either by state statute or municipal police regulation, generally require the licensing or registration of dogs, particularly in cities and districts where sheep-raising is carried on. Some local ordinances require that every animal of this kind shall wear a muzzle bearing the owner's address. In some states it is the law that a prosecution for theft of a dog cannot be maintained if its owner has not complied with the law in regard to taxes or license. Generally speaking, unless authorized by the state or city so to do, no person may without making himself liable to prosecution kill the dog of another unless he or some one under his lawful protection be in immediate danger of injury from the animal, or it be known to be rabid. Some state or cities have laws requiring the muzzling of dogs for a certain number of weeks in the year; others forbid the letting loose of an unmuzzled dog in the streets or public highways at any time. It is now the general custom for large cities to appoint and license regular dog catchers to seize any unmuzzled dogs and to take them to a place provided by the city, where they are held for redemption by their owner on paying a certain fine, in default of which redemption they are destroyed. The owner of a dog which has injured the person or property of another is liable for damages in a civil suit, the injury being in the nature of a tort; he cannot plead in mitigation of damages ignorance on his part of the vicious or destructive character of the animal. It has been held that the owner is bound to take every reasonable precaution, even if he has no special cause to suppose that his animal is viciously inclined; and the injured person will be awarded damages in such a civil suit as we have described unless it can be clearly shown by the evidence that he was himself in fault. As an example of this we may mention that it has been held that it is no defense in an action for damages against the owner of a dog that a person bitten by the animal had first accidentally injured it. Another decision of similar purport was in effect that where the owner of a dog knew that it had previously killed a sheep, and still retained it without taking special precautions against its going loose, he was liable for all subsequent injury done by the dog even to other animals than sheep, as, for instance, to a horse. Where statute or police provisions do not enforce muzzling or other restraint of dogs, still the courts may deal with the subject under the common law principles enunciated at the beginning of this article.

DOG BANE, Apocynum, a genus of plants of the natural order apocynacea, having bell-shaped lowers, no style, and the fruit a long linear follicle. Some of the species are shrubby, some herbaceous; some extend into colder climates than is usual for plants of this order. The D. of North America (a androsa-mifolium), a perennial herbaceous

plant, about 4 ft. high, with smooth stem, much milky juice, smooth ovate leaves, and whitish rose-colored flowers, growing in open barren places from Georgia to Canada, is valued for the medicinal properties of the bark of its root, which is emetic, diaphoretic, and in small doses tonic. The root of CANADIAN HEMP (A. cannabinum), a plant noticed on another account in the article Apocynacea, possesses similar properties.

DOG-DAYS, or CANICULAR DAYS (q.v.), are the twenty days immediately preceding, and the twenty days following, the rising of the dog-star Sirius. It falls at present between July 3 and Aug. 11. Ancient astronomers and astrologers named these days thus, attributing the great heat of summer and consequent disease entirely to the influence of the dog-star; but modern astronomers have proved the error of this reckoning, because, owing to precession (q.v.), the time is coming when Sirius will rise in the winter.

DOG DISTEMPER is a kind of violent catarrh, common among dogs, especially when young, producing running at the eyes and nose and a dry cough, followed by wasting of flesh and loss of strength, and sometimes by inflammation of the lungs and dysentery. The usual remedies are laxatives, emetics, and occasional bleeding. Astringents are useful in diarrhea, and fits may be modified by anodynes and warm baths.

DOGE (equivalent to duke) was the name of the chief magistrate, possessing princely rank, in the republics of Venice and Genoa. Dogate or dogado, both from the Latin ducatus, duchy, is used to indicate the dignity of doge. We find doges of Venice elected by the people, but enjoying almost the rights of absolute monarchs, as early as the beginning of the 8th century. Their power, however was considerably reduced towards the end of the 12th c., through the creation of a great council, composed of 470 members, chosen from nobles as well as citizens, and invested with legislative power. These afterwards appointed six of their own number to superintend the D. in the exercise of his executive power. Further, the pregadi, or nobles, who formerly were admitted by the D. to a share in the public affairs, were organized into a regular board of administration, numbering 60 members. By the new constitution, the people, too, lost the most essential of their rights-viz., the right of electing the doge. This right was now changed into a privilege belonging exclusively to the great council, whose members elected 24 from among themselves, and these latter again elected, by ballot, 12 of their own number, upon whom devolved the right of appointing a doge. Sebastiano Ziani was the first D. thus elected, 1177; and on the occasion of his elevation to office, he scattered money among the people, to console them for the loss of their rights-an act which was imitated by his successors, and soon became a recognized custom, as was also the case regarding the manner in which he went through the cereThe pope Alexander III., whom, during his mony of wedding the Adriatic sea. quarrels with the emperor Frederic L., the D. had faithfully supported, sent him, together with other privileges, a ring, as the symbol of domination the republic had acquired over the Adriatic. Accordingly, a marriage ceremony took place on Ascension day-a ring being thrown from the ship Bucentaur into the sea, to show that as the wife is subject to her husband, so is the Adriatic sea to the republic of Venice. The practical bearing of the ceremony soon appeared in the shape of stringent measures, regulating the navigation of the Adriatic, and imposing tribute upon all foreign ships. The power of the D. underwent, in 1179, a signal modification; the Treble Quarantiaa high court of justice, composed originally of 40 members-having been erected, as also the board of advogadori, for the settlement of fiscal questions instituted. During the reign of Jacopo Tiepolo, 1229-49, a new restriction arose from the creation of an independent police, and a still greater one from the formation of a tribunal consisting of three inquisitors and five correctors, who, on the demise of a D., had to examine his conduct, sifting the minutest particulars of his private life. All these changes were effected by the great council, to the thorough exclusion of the people. In 1268, the great council, in order to cut short all family influence upon the affairs of the state, devised a curious and extremely complicated mode of election; but notwithstanding the limitations new and old, the power of a D. continued great, if he was only wise enough to profit by the contentions between nobles and citizens, the disputes of the different authorities, and especially by his own position as commander-in-chief of the forces and high-admiral of the navy. This last prerogative of the D. remained in vigor up to 1628, when, by a formal enactment, the D. was prohibited the exercise of such command, unless he were authorized by the council of forty. Other privileges, however, belonging originally to the dogate, were abrogated or circumscribed long before this, and especially during the period 1289-1311. Thus, at the instigation of the D., Gradenigo, who was actuated by jealousy towards the mighty family Tiepolo, the famous law of "closing the great council" was passed, and by it the whole legislative and judicial power made the heirloom of those families whose names were inscribed in About that time (1309), ecclesiastics of any degree the Golden Book, or Libro d'Oro. were declared unfit for political or judicial functions. To counterbalance the influence of discontented nobles, a public feast was instituted-to come off yearly-at which the D. gave a dinner to the fishermen, fraternizing with them in testimony of equality. Shortly before Gradenigo's death, that terrible tribunal, the council of the ten, was erected, which was to be the highest in the state, irresponsible, and entitled to pass judgment upon the D. himself. In the meanwhile, the great council managed to get the functions,

Dogma.

public as well as private, of the D. circumscribed in the minutest way. It was ordered that the D. should not announce his accession, except to the princes of Italy; neither was he permitted the opening of dispatches emanating from the popes or from princes; the kissing of his hands, or kneeling down in his presence, was strictly interdicted. He could not leave town, be possessed of real property abroad, or allow his children to contract matrimonial connections with foreign houses, accept donations, etc. He had to submit to the continued presence of two advogadori, to be fined for the least mistake, and bear the expenses of the ducal dignity from his own purse. To all these restrictions and burdens the D. declared himself liable on the occasion of his coronation, by signing a document headed " Promissione." The state costume and retinue of the D. were minutely defined, and a trifle fixed as his salary. As a symbol of princely dignity, the D. wore a horned cap, and had the title of serenity. The credentials of ambassadors were written in his name, but signed by a secretary of state, and sealed with the arms of the republic. The money was struck in his name, but not with his stamp or arms. All the magistrates rose and saluted the D. when he came into council, and the D. rose to none but to foreign ambassadors. His family was exempt from the jurisdiction of the master of the ceremonies; and his children, though excluded from public offices, were allowed to have staff-officers, and gondoliers in livery. After the death of And. Dandolo, 1354, on a motion from the correctors, the three presidents of the quarantia, and later six ministers, were joined to the six privy-councilors of the D., who, together with the above-named, has formed henceforward the so-called Signoria Serenissima. At that stage the rank of D. could no longer be an object of ambition, and as early as 1339, a law was necessary to prohibit the D. elected from resigning his place. And. Contarini, 1367, accepted the proffered dignity only upon the threat of being declared a traitor to the country. In 1413, by a law emanating from the great council, the D. was even denied the title of Signoria, that of Messere being substituted instead; at the same time he was deprived of the right of convening an arengo, or meeting of the people. With the fall of the Venetian republic, 1797, the dignity of D. also disappeared. There were in all 73 D. at Venice, the first of whom, Anafeste (Paoluccio) was elected 697; the last, Manin (Lodovico), 1788. In the Palazzo Ducale, the celebrated frieze of the D. is to be seen round the Sala del Maggior Consiglie, exhibiting 72 portraits, and one space covered with a black veil, with an inscription, indicating that Faliero (Marino) was beheaded for high treason.

The republic of Genoa elected, after a victory gained by the party of the people (1339), Simon Boccanera for its first doge. He was elected for life, and with absolute power, of which, however, he allowed a share to 12 aldermen (anziani), the one half being chosen from the cittadini (citizens), the other among the nobili (nobles). In the long run of centuries, the power, duration, and splendor of the ducal seat underwent frequent changes, arising from the vicissitudes of the state and the hostilities between the popular and aristocratic parties. A constitution for defining the functions and prerogatives of the D. was framed in 1528, after the great victory of And. Doria over the French. According to this constitution, which, with slight modifications, remained till the end of the republic, the dignity of D. was of two years' duration, under restrictions similar to those at Venice. The candidate was to be a noble, and at least 50 years of age. The D. presided, with the right of veto, in the sittings of the great council, composed of 300 members, as also in those of a smaller one, consisting of 100. These two councils exercised the legislative power, whereas the executive was vested in the D., together with 12 governadori and eight procuratori, among these latter being always the D. retiring. During the time of his government, the D. resided in the state palace, where he was liable to the same restrictions and ceremonies which were in use at Venice. When, in 1797, Genoa was occupied by the French, the dogate ceased to exist; in 1802, the Genoese republic being, conjointly with the Ligurian, re-established, the ducal dignity was once more resuscitated; but in 1804, it disappeared forever, the republic itself having been dissolved.

DOGFISH, the popular name of some of the smaller species of shark; apparently owing its origin-like the names porbeagle, hound, etc., bestowed on others of the same family-to their habit of following their prey like dogs hunting in packs. Of the species to which the name D. is given on American coasts, one of the most abundant is that sometimes called the common D. (acanthias vulgaris), also known as the picked (i.e., piked or spined) dogfish. It belongs to the family spinacida, of which one characteristic is the presence of a spine before each of the two dorsal fins; and which is further characterized by having spiracles or spout-holes; by having five gill-openings on each side all before the pectoral fins; and by having no anal fin, and no nictitating membrane of the eye. The body is long and tapering; the head flat; the snout conical; the teeth in both jaws sharp-edged, and formed for cutting. The tail-fin is longer than it is broad. The upper parts are slate-gray, the under parts yellowish-white; the skin very rough when rubbed from tail to head, but seeming quite smooth when rubbed in the contrary direction. This fish uses its spines in a remarkable manner, bending itself into the form of a bow, and unbending with a powerful spring; and "if a finger be placed on its head, it will strike it without piercing its own skin." It attains a length of 3 or 4 feet. It is very widely distributed, being found in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and

the South seas. It causes great annoyance to fishermen, by cutting the hooks from their lines, and still more by frightening away the shoals of herring, in which other kinds It sometimes appears in prodigious numbers; 20,000 of D. share the blame with it. have been taken in a net at one time on the coast of Cornwall; and the fishermen of the Orkneys and Hebrides sometimes load their boats to the water's edge with them. The flesh, although coarse, is dried and eaten; the livers yield oil, and the refuse parts are used as manure.-The other British dog-fishes belong to the genus scyllium, of the family scylliida, which have an anal fin, and two dorsal fins placed far back. They resemble in general form the species just described, and like it, they have the tail-fin longer than it is broad-they have five gill-openings on each side-the last of which, however, is over the base of the pectoral fin. They have spout-holes, and no nictitating membrane; but their teeth are very different, having a long central point, with shorter points on each side. The spotted D. of two species (S. canicula and S. catulus), both of a generally reddish-brown color, and marked with dark spots, is often taken with bait on all parts of the British coasts; and although almost never brought to market, is much used for food in the Orkney islands. It has been suggested that the fins of these and other sharks might be used for making gelatine soup, as in China.

DOG-FOX, a name sometimes given to certain small animals of the family canida, allied to the corsac (q.v.), and, like it, referred to the genus cynaloper. They have a sharp muzzle, not unlike that of a greyhound, rather large, erect, pointed ears, the pupil of the eye contracting circularly as in the dog, the tail bushy like that of a fox. They inhabit warm parts of Asia and Africa; and some, if not all of them, burrow.

DOGGER is a vessel something like a galliot or a ketch, used by the Dutch as a fishingboat in the German ocean. It is not certain whether these were named after the Doggerbank, or vice versa.

DOGGERBANK, an extensive flat sand-bank in the middle of the German ocean, between England and Denmark, in lat. 54° 10' to 55° 30′ n., and long. 1° to 5o east. It stretches 320 m. e.n.e., from 12 leagues e. of Flamborough head to within 20 leagues of Jutland. A prolongation runs e. towards Horn Point, Denmark. The bank is in some parts 60 m. broad, but the average breadth is 40. Towards the English coast, it is only 9 fathoms deep, in some parts it is 30, but the average depth is 15 to 20. The surrounding sea is in many parts 24 to 60 fathoms deep. The surface of the bank conIt is the seat of important English and Dutch codsists chiefly of fine sand and ooze. fisheries. At the s. end of D., in 1781, occurred the indecisive naval fight between the Dutch and English fleets, under admirals Zoutman and Parker respectively.

DOGGET'S COAT AND BADGE. These form a prize at a rowing-match on the Thames every year on the 1st of Aug. The prize is a bequest of Thomas Dogget, an actor of Drury Lane theater, who desired to signalize the accession of George I. to the throne (Aug. 1, 1715) by a prize of a waterman's coat and badge. Such is the account usually "The first given; it would appear, however, from the following notice in the Times newspaper (Aug. 2, 1861), that there are several prizes rowed for on this occasion. prize is a livery and badge given by Mr. Thomas Dogget, deceased, to which the Fishmongers' company add a guinea. The second and third prizes are respectively five eighths and three eighths of the interest on £260 178. 3d., formerly £200 South-Sea stock, left in the will of sir William Jolliffe, the amounts respectively being £4 178. 9d. Besides these prizes, and £2 188. 9d. The prize for the fourth man is £1 118. 6d., and for the fifth and sixth men each £1 18., the last three given by the company. additional sums are occasionally given by private individuals to the winner, or to the The competition is by six young watermen whose first, second, and third in the race. apprenticeships have expired the previous year; each being in a boat by himself, with short oars or sculls. The barge-master of the Fishmongers' company is ordinarily the umpire. The competition takes place when the current of the Thames, by recession of the tide, is strongest against the rowers; and the race, which is from London bridge to the Old Swan at Chelsea, always excites much local interest.

DOG-GRASS. See COUCH GRASS.

DOGLIA'NI, a t. of Piedmont, northern Italy, is situated in a mountainous district on the left bank of the Rea, 12 m. n.e. of Mondovi. D. has the remains of an old casHere five annual fairs are held, at which tle, but no other buildings worthy of note.

cattle, hemp, and victuals are chiefly sold. Pop. 5,000.

DOGMA (Gr.), meant originally an opinion or proposition, put in the form of a positive assertion, its truth being supposed to have been previously shown. In theology, it was understood to signify a doctrine founded on Scripture, and advanced not for discussion but for belief. But as this method of stating truth easily degenerates into the assertion of opinions without ground, and without regard to the aspect they may present to others, dogma and dogmatism have come in English to be almost synonymous with assertion without proof.

In continental theology, however, the word is still used without implying any censure, dogmas (Ger. dogmen) meaning simply doctrines; and this is the case in our own expression, dogmatic theology, or dogmatic, which is that branch of theology that treats

of the systematic arrangement of the doctrines of Christianity. Older names for the same thing were Loci Theologici and Theologia Positiva.-The first attempt to give a connected view of Christian doctrine was made in the 3d c. by Origen in his work De Principiis. He was followed in the 4th c. by Augustine, who in his book De Doctrina Christiana, and others, treated of the whole body of doctrine held by the church, though without any very scientific arrangement. The contributions to dogmatic, made in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries, were mere collections of "sentences." In the east, in the 8th c., the doctrines of the Greek church were treated by John of Damascus in a form already Aristotelian, and his work may be considered the first systematically-arranged treatise on dogmatic. He makes no mention of purgatory. His book was as influential in the Greek church as the writings of Augustine in the Latin. The regular systematizing of doctrines began with the SCHOLASTICS in the 11th c., but degenerated often into hair-splitting. The first cultivators of dogmatic theology among the Scholastics were Hildebert of Tours and Abelard, who were followed by Petrus Lombardus, Alexander de Hales, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, etc.

The era of the reformation awoke dogmatic to a new life, leading it back from Aristotle to Biblical theology. But the controversies between the different churches in the 17th c., and the too great importance attached to confessions of faith, cramped anew its freedom, and gave it again a Scholastic turn. Many of our still standard treatises on systematic divinity wear traces of these fetters, and contrast strikingly with the independence and vigor of inquiry displayed in the similar works of Melanchthon, Calvin, and other reformers. A fresh revival followed in Germany the spread of the critical philosophy of Kant, when Biblical theology rose up in contradistinction to the theology of confessions, and dogmatic was grounded on the critical interpretation of Scripture rather than on traditional formulas. Hence, however, have sprung widely diverging views. One party still held fast by the existing confessions; another looked chiefly to the contents of Scripture; while a third subjected confessions and Scripture alike to the test of reason. Besides these, there arose in more recent times, a school of dogmatic theologians, formed on the philosophical systems of Jacobi and Schelling, who looked for the essence of religion in the human soul itself, and considered Christianity as the historical revelation of it. Of this school, Schleiermacher, and in some respects Neander and Rothe also, may be considered the representatives; and of all the German schools, it is that which seems to be exercising the greatest influence on the speculative theology of Britain. An important contribution to this department of theology was Peter Lange's Philosophische Dogmatik (2 vols., Heidelb. 1849-51). The dogmatic of D. F. Strauss is constructed from the Hegelian point of view, and in its leading results comes back to the system of Spinoza.

It deserves remark that Christian dogmatic and morality, which it had been the custom to discuss separately since the 17th c., have recently been treated in combination by Nitsch and Beck. The scientific investigation of Christian doctrine in Germany has not been confined to the Protestant churches. A number of Catholic theologians have occupied themselves with this branch of sacred science; some, as G. Hermes of Bonn, inclining to freedom of investigation, and others, as Liebermann, to the defense of the usual formulas.

The HISTORY OF DOGMAS OR DOCTRINES has been raised in Germany to the rank of a distinct branch of sacred science. In this country, the facts with which it deals have received only passing notice in treatises on systematic theology, and in ecclesiastical history have been considered as the "internal history of the church." The pursuit of this branch of inquiry is characteristic of Protestantism; in the Catholic church it is considered as endangering the unity of the faith. Many Protestants even dislike the idea of a "development" of Christian doctrine, which seems to be involved in its having a history. It is not necessary, however, to believe that doctrines hitherto absolutely unknown or denied, came from time to time to be embodied in the orthodox creed of Christendom. See DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. Though this may be denied, it remains an indisputable fact that the several doctrines came one after the other into prominence in the consciousness of the church; and that in each period of her history there is some one leading doctrine which assumed an importance, as if it were the mainstay of Christianity. To depict this succession or evolution of views with their struggles and modifications, and trace the different ways in which the several doctrines were at different periods formulated and embodied in the creeds, is the object of a history of doctrines (Ger. Dogmengeschichte). There is, of course, room for great variety in the method of treating such a subject. Among the most important works on this subject is Neander's, edited by J. L. Jacobi, 1856 (English trans. 1858), and that of F. C. Baur (1847), whose name marks an era in this branch of study.

DOGS, ISLE OF, or Poplar Marshes, a small peninsula in the co. of Middlesex, England, formed by a circuitous winding of the Thames, is situated in the vicinity of London, distant 34 m. e.s.e. from St. Paul's cathedral. It is about a mile long, and threequarters of a mile broad. In what may be called the isthmus of the peninsula are situated the West India docks. It is said that the Isle of Dogs derives its name from the circumstance that the king's hounds were formerly kept here.

DOGS. See ANDIRON.

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