and one still later transfers the power of the endowed school commissioners to the charity commissioners.

EN DRÖD, a village of Hungary, in the county of Bekes-Csanad, on the Körös, 90 m. e.s.e. from Budapest. Pop. 10,900. The surrounding district produces much corn. ENDY MION, in Greek mythology, was a son either of Zeus or of Aethlios, and fol lowed, according to some accounts, the occupation of a herdsman or hunter, but accord. ing to others, was king of Elis. On account of his uprightness, he is said to have received, at his own request, from Zeus, the gift of immortality, unfading youth, and everlasting sleep; but another version is, that Zeus having taken him up to Olympus, E. fell in love with Here (Juno), and was condemned by her enraged husband to eternal sleep on mount Latmos. Others, again, prettily fable that Selene (the moon), charmed by the beauty of the youth, conveyed him to Caria, and sent him to sleep on mount Latmos, that she might nightly kiss him unobserved. The Eleans, on the contrary, declared that he died among them, and in proof of it were wont to show his monument. The myth of E. has been happily interpreted by Max Müller in his article on comparative mythology, in the Oxford Essays (1856). E., according to him, is one of the many names of the sun, but with special reference to the setting or dying sun, being formed from enduo, probably a dialectic variety of duo, the technical verb in Greek to express sunset. E. sleeps in the cave of Latmos, i.e., of night (from the same root as leto or latona, the night). So far the myth poetically describes certain phenomena of nature, the sinking of the sun in the west, and the rising of the moon, that seems to follow his departing beams. But the original signification of the metaphors becoming lost, as might naturally happen when the words expressing them had only a local usage, it was, we may say, inevitable that people should transfer the metaphors to persons, and invent a history to supply the place of the vanished poetry. And this invention, or more properly, explanation (for it was doubtless made in all good faith), is what properly constitutes the myth of Endymion. The story has been made the subject of a poem by Keats.

ENE MA (Gr. en, in, and imi, I enter), a medicine or fluid substance conveyed into the body by injection, usually through the rectum or lower bowel. See CLYSTER.

ENEMY, in international law signifies either a nation at war with another, considered as a whole, or an individual or body of men belonging to the hostile nation. By ancient practice to constitute a lawful enemy there should be a public declaration of war made to the nation against which hostilities are intended. Such a declaration was considered to be demanded by the ordinary laws of humanity and fair dealing. In modern times it is held that all that is requisite is a public proclamation of war made by a nation within its own territory; this answers all the demands of formality, apprises neutral peoples of the impending war, and is so public in its character (under modern conditions) that the enemy must be presumed to have taken notice of the declaration.

Under monarchial governments the right of declaring war against a public enemy is universally reserved to the crown; in the United States the constitution gives to Congress the power "to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;" thus making it the duty of that body to define who are the public enemies, and to prescribe the rules for their treatment. It has been a mooted question whether a nation at war should treat all the subjects of a hostile country as enemies individually, or only the nation itself, regarded in its corporate capacity and as represented by its authorized forces-its army and navy. The tendency has been in recent times strongly towards the latter theory; private individuals not commissioned to bear arms and not taken in the act of hostility are now by civilized nations treated with all possible humanity and forbearance. It was a corollary of the old theory that all individuals of a hostile state were enemies, that the property of aliens residing in a country with which their own was at war might be confiscated, and even that they might be made prisoners. It is to be doubted if such action would to-day be taken by any civilized nation, unless, possibly, in the way of reprisal. In regard to the treatment of enemies there has been a great advance in the humanity and forbearance of the rules governing the carrying on of hostilities. In the civil war in the United States a code of rules was adopted which was drawn up by the well-known publicist, Professor Lieber, and this code has served as a basis for rules subsequently adopted by international conference in Brussels (1874) and Oxford (1880). By all these codes what is allowable in war is, speaking generally: the destruction or injury of enemies in arms by ordinary methods of warfare; the destruction of property when necessary to carry on operations of war, or to reduce the military strength of the enemy; such incidental injury to persons or property of non-combatants as the operations of war make unavoidable. Killing or wounding, except in battle, or regular military operations, the use of poison, the use of cruel or unusual weapons, wanton destruction of property-all are strictly forbidden.

ENERGICO, an Italian term in music, meaning with energy and force; with strong articulation and accentuation, and a marked powerful delivery of the single notes, without losing in distinctness of execution.

ENERGUMENS, a class of persons, who in the early ages of the church were believed to be possessed by evil spirits, and were placed under the special care of exorcists, yet allowed a certain amount of participation in religious services. Catechumens included

in this class could not be baptized, except in cases of sickness; while the faithful who became deranged were obliged to remain apart from their fellow Christians, in the area of the church, which was not enclosed, deriving from this circumstance the name of Xeiuacóuevo-exposed to the weather. They could not partake of the Lord's Supper, except upon their death-beds.

ENERGY. See FORCE, THERMO-DYNAMICS.

ENFANT GATÉ (Fr., "spoiled child") is a term used in polite society in France to denote a person who has been reared in luxury, and is devoted to a life of inactivity and

ease.

ENFANTIN, BARTHÉLEMY PROSPER, the chief representative of St. Simonism, and as such, usually styled père Enfantin, was the son of a banker at Paris, where he was born Feb. 8th, 1796. He became a pupil in the Ecole Polytechnique in 1812, but was expelled in 1814, in consequence of his having joined the pupils who left school and fought against the allies on the heights of Montmartre and St. Chaumont. He was afterwards a commercial traveler in Russia, then a banker's clerk, and in 1825, became director of the Caisse Hypothécaire. About this time, he became a disciple of St. Simon, whose ideas he developed, after the death of their author, in the Producteur. After the July revolution, E. associated himself with M. Bazard for the active propagation of St. Simonism. Bazard preached it in its relations to philosophy and politics; E. mainly in its relations to the social state. Soon, however, a schism broke out between the two on the question of marriage and the relation of the sexes. Recognizing the " mobility" of the affections, E. affirmed that they ought to be " free," and of course pronounced against the ties of marriage. E.'s views were pushed so far, that government deemed it necessary to interfere on the grounds of public decency. The supreme father" (as his disciples were wont rather profanely to call him) was, after a trial of two days, sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and to pay a fine of 100 francs. Being released at the expiration of a few months, E. went to Egypt, and, after an absence of two years, returned to France, and became a postmaster and farmer in the vicinity of Lyons. In 1841, he came to Paris, and was appointed a member of the scientific commission for Algiers, and on his return from Africa, wrote a sensible, interesting book, entitled Colonisation de l'Algérie (Paris, 1843). After the revolution of 1848, he edited the journal entitled Le Crédit Public, a paper retaining much of the old St. Simonian character, but which had to stop in 1850 for want of funds. E. afterwards held an important situation on the Lyons and Mediterranean railway. His principal works are his Doctrine de St. Simon, in conjunction with others (1830); his Traité d'Economie Politique; La Religion Saint-Simonienne (1831); Moral; Le Livre Nouveau (1832); Correspondance Phil osophique et Religieuse (1847); Correspondance Politique (1849); La Vie Eternelle, Passé, Présente, Future (1861). He died Aug. 31, 1864.

ENFANTS PERDUS. (Fr., "lost children.") English equivalent, "A Forlorn Hope" (q.v.). The term is a military expression meaning formerly the officers and men who were appointed, or who volunteered, to lead the way in some especially dangerous assault; a work now performed by those next in order on duty.

ENFANT TERRIBLE (Fr.), literally, terrible child, one given to making inconvenient remarks, more or less clever, and mostly personal, to the confusion of present com

pany.

ENFEOFF MENT. See FEOFFMENT.

ENFIELD, a town in Hartford co., Conn., on the Connecticut river, and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad, 18 m. n. of Hartford; contains two villages. There are carpet factories, bicycle works, steam brick works, and extensive powdermills, the latter said to be the largest in the world; several churches, banks, public library, sanitarium, electric lights and street railroad, and a high school. In the town is Shaker station, a community of Shakers. Pop. town, '90, 7199.

ENFIELD, a t. in Middlesex, England, 10 m. n.e. of London, noted as the place of manufacture of the Enfield rifle, now the Martini-Henry rifle; pop. '91, 31,532. In the place are the remains of a royal palace in which Edward VI. kept his court.

ENFIELD, a tp. in Halifax co., N. Car.; traversed by the Wilmington and Weldon railroad, and containing the town of Enfield. Pop. '90, tp. 3650, town, 568.

ENFIELD, WILLIAM, LL.D., an English author and dissenting minister, was born in Sudbury in 1741, and died at Norwich in 1797. He was educated at Daventry under Dr. Ashworth, and on leaving the seminary officiated in a Unitarian church at Liver pool, then removed to Warrington, where he was resident tutor and lecturer on belles lettres in the academy at that place. In 1785 he became pastor of the Unitarian church at Norwich. He aided Dr. Aikin in preparing his General Biographical Dictionary, and published A History of Philosophy, an abridgment of Brucker's work (1819); The Preachers' Directory, a work that became very popular (1771); Sermons for Families (1778); and The English Preacher (9 vols.). A memoir was written by Dr. Aikin.

ENFIELD RIFLE-MUSKET, so called, deriving its name from the place of its manufac ture in England, was a kind of small-arms resembling the old Springfield rifle-musket.

ENFILADE' is a military term applied to a fire of musketry or artillery made in the direction of the length of a line of troops or a line of rampart. A besieging battery so placed as to send its shot along any part of the line of a fortification, and inside the parapet, does great execution in dismounting the guns, which thus present the largest surface to the balls. Hence the lines of rampart should be planned that their prolongations may fall in situations inaccessible to the enemy. Where this is not possible, the lines are either broken, or are protected by bonnets (q.v.), or by traverses (q.v.), or blindages (q.v.). In the siege of a fortress, the trenches of approach are cut in a zigzag, to prevent the defenders enfilading them from the walls.

ENFRANCHISE, ENFRANCHISEMENT, to make free; the admission to certain liberties or privileges. Thus, a person made a denizen of the country, or receiving the freedom of a city or burgh, is said to be enfranchised.

ENGADINE', a famous valley in Switzerland, in the canton of Grisons, second only to the Valais in length, extends n.e. for about 50 m. along the banks of the Inn, from the foot of Mt. Maloja to the village of Martinsbruck. It is divided into two portionsthat toward the s. w., called the Upper E., and that toward the n.e., the Lower Engadine. The latter is wild and bleak, pent up within narrow limits among the hills, and having a huge barrier of glaciers between it and Italy. The upper E. has a remarkably invigorating climate and is a resort for consumptives. It contains the village of St. Moritz. The Inn, which enters the valley at its s.w. or upper extremity, and flows through it, has many towns upon its banks, the highest of which, Silvaplana, is about 6,000 ft. above sea-level.

ENGAGEMENT, MILITARY. See BATTLE. It is of interest to note how, since 1880, the scientific theories of the conduct of a battle are rapidly being modified by the recent inventions of more effective instruments of destruction. Most important among these discoveries are: (1), the great increase in the range of artillery; (2), the invention of rapid-fire and machine-guns; (3), the perfection of the magazine-rifle; (4), the discovery of new explosives of tremendous power, such as dynamite, mélinite, écrasite, emmensite, and roburite; and, (5), the invention of smokeless powder.

No great conflict has arisen since the adoption of these new appliances for war, to test them by the practical experience of the battle-field; but already the theory of military engagements has been seriously modified by modern tacticians. A recent writer has made some interesting remarks upon this head.

"As might be expected, the fundamental principles of war are the same, but a thousand circumstances have modified the phenomena which they display. For example, in one of the essential conditions of victory: when Napoleon said that fortune always favored big battalions, he was merely stating the truism that the surest way of beating a hundred men is to attack them with two hundred. Hence the strategist is always endeavoring to get the greater military force at a particular place and at a particular moment. From these premises arose Napoleon's favorite manœuvre—a manœuvre similar to that of 'breaking the line' at sea. Napoleon liked to drive his army like a wedge into the middle of his opponents. This done, he hit out left and right, and drove back the disunited enemy on separate lines of retreat. Then came in the application of the rule that the greater beats the less. He singled out one or other half of the divided army of the enemy for attack, and crushed it with his whole strength. To do this, he swiftly brought over, say, the left wing of his army, joined it to the right, and then threw his united force on one-half of the army opposed to him. As a rule, numbers prevailed; he crushed his foe, and then hurled himself on the other and still unconquered half. Now, it might be supposed that this operation must remain as practicable now as it was a hundred years ago. Oddly enough, however, it is no longer sound generalship. And for this reason, a modern army, partly from its size, possesses much greater possibilities of delay and of fighting a waiting battle, than did those of two generations ago. A weaker force, that is, can more easily hold in play a stronger. Hence, when A's force has united and tries to crush one-half of B, that half is able to hold A in check till the other half comes up and unites with it. "If it were possible for an army of our day, supplied with all the implements with which modern science has provided it, to meet an army of equal numbers equipped as Napoleon's armies were equipped, the difference in power of the modern army would be such that it would almost be able to deal with its enemy as civilized armies provided with fire arms were at first able to deal with savages possessed only of bows and arrows. The artillery of the days of Napoleon would not be able to act at all, for our modern infantry can fire with effect at a distance greater than could Napoleon's big guns. Our artillery would be able to destroy Napoleon's army before either his artillery or infantry could act against us. Thus, an army of 50,000 men of our own time must be reckoned as possessing at least the resisting power of 100,000 of the days of Napoleon. It is obvious, therefore, that the relationship between time, distance, and the resisting power of armies has been greatly affected by the change in the character of the weapons; and that calculations as to what a superior army can do in a given time to break up the force of an army opposing it, and to be free to deal with another army, are greatly modified." See Maurice, Modern War (1891). See also ARTILLERY; ARTILLERY CORPS; ARTILLERY, PARK OF; BREECH-LOADING ARMS; CAVALRY; DYNAMITE GUN; EXPLOSIVES; EXPLOSIVES OF HIGH POWER; FORTIFICATION; GUN COTTON; GUNPOWDER; INFANTRY; MACHINE GUNS; MAGAZINE RIFLES; MELINITE; RAPID-FIRE GUNS; SMOKELESS POWDER; STRATEGY; TACTICS, MILITARY.

66

Engineer.

ENG AND CHANG. See SIAMESE TWINS.

EN-GEDI (meaning in Hebrew "the fountain of the kid," and corresponding to the Arabic "Ain Jidy") is the name of a wilderness, a mountain pass, a ruined village, and a perennial fountain on the w. side of the Dead sea, half way between its northern and southern ends. In the days of Abraham it was the site of a city named Hazezonta-mar, cutting of palm trees, doubtless with reference to the grove of trees which then grew around the fountain. In its strongholds was the home of the Amorites, who were, at that time, attacked and destroyed by the Assyrians and their allies. Here in "the city of palm-trees," at the time of the exodus from Egypt, a branch of the Kenites lived concerning whom Balaam said-"Strong is thy dwelling place, and thou puttest they nest in the rock." After the conquest of Canaan they left this fortress and went up to dwell with the tribe of Judah. Four hundred years later, David fled for refuge into the strongholds of En-gedi. When Saul heard this he "took 3,000 chosen men and went to seek David and his men on the rocks of the wild goats." Entering one of the numerous caverns, it proved to be the very one in the sides of which the fugitives were concealed. David, refusing to lift his hand against the king, and forbidding his followers to touch him, cut off the skirt of his robe, as proof of what he might have done, and let him depart. After David, Solomon celebrated in his "song of songs" the vineyards of En-gedi, which, as the ruins still show, were planted all along the terraced side of the mountain. About 1000 years later the Jewish sect of the Essenes, in their progressive efforts to isolate themselves from all the impurities of life, chose at last as their retreat the absolute solitude of the caverns around the fountain of En-gedi. Four hundred years afterwards there was a large village on the coast below the fountain, the ruins of which yet remain.

ENGEL, CARL, author, b. in Thiedenweise, near Hanover, July 6, 1818; d. in London, Nov. 17, 1882. He studied the pianoforte under Hummel, and settled in London about 1844. He owned a large collection of rare musical instruments, many of which were given after his death to the South Kensington Museum, with which he had been connected for many years. His important books are: The Music of the Most Ancient Nations (London, 1864); and An Introduction to the Study of National Music (1866).

ENGEL, ERNST, statistician, b. in Dresden in 1821, studied at Freiberg, and afterwards at Paris. Subsequently called to the direction of the statistical bureau in Dresden, he superintended the publication of a number of important statistical works, and after the death of Dieterici, he became the head of the Prussian statistical bureau. His works are both numerous and valuable, including, among others, a comparison of German industries in 1861 and 1875, a work entitled The Age of Steam, and a treatise on the price of labor. His researches made clear the important law that, as the wages of workingmen increased, a smaller proportional share of their income was expended upon the necessaries of life, and a more than proportional share was applied to the gratification of the desire for luxury, social ambitions, and the like.

ENGELHARDT, JOH. GEORG VEIT, a learned German theologian, was b. 12th Nov., 1791, at Neustadt on the Aisch, and studied at Erlangen, where, in 1820, he was appointed extraordinary professor, and in 1822 ordinary professor of theology. He died 13th Sept., 1855. Patristic and medieval dogmatics, and Neoplatonism, are the subjects which he has chiefly investigated. In 1820, he published at Erlangen a translation of the first Ennead of Plotinus; in 1823 appeared his translation of the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite. His Kirchengeschichtlichen Abhandlungen (Erl. 1832), Auslegung des speculativen Theils des Evangeliums Johannis durch einen deutschen mystichen Theologen (Erl. 1839), and his contribution to the history of the mystical theology, entitled Richard von St. Victor und Johannes Ruysbroek (Erl. 1838), are works of great value, and have thrown a new light on many important points. Very useful, too, especially on account of the richness of their special notices, are his Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte (Erl. 1834), and Dogmengeschichte (Neustadt, 1839). E., in the course of his life, wrote many learned dissertations in the Journal of Historical Theology, among which may be specified his Ueber die Hesychiasten, and Ueber Erasmus Sarcerius.

ENGHIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE HENRI DE BOURBON, Duc d', only son of prince Henri Louis Joseph, Duc de Bourbon, was b. at Chantilly, 2d Aug., 1772. In 1789, he quitted France, and traveled through several countries of Europe. In 1792, he entered the corps of émigrés assembled by his grandfather, the prince of Condé, on the Rhine, and commanded the vanguard from 1796 until 1799. At the peace of Lunéville, in the year 1801, he went to reside at Ettenheim, an old château on the German side of the Rhine, not far from Strasburg, and within the territories of the duke of Baden. Here he married the princess Charlotte of Rohan Rochefort, and lived as a private citizen. When the conspiracy of the Bourbon princes, headed by Cadoudal, Pichegru, etc., against the life and authority of Bonaparte, was discovered at Paris, the latter chose to believe that the duc d'E. was privy to it, although there was not a tittle of evidence to prove this. Perhaps Bonaparte was afraid that the valor and humanity of the last descendant of the great Condé might one day prove dangerous to his power. Be that as it may, he unscrupulously resolved to seize the person of the duke. On the night of the 17th Mar., 1804, the neutral territory of Baden was violated, and the château of Ettenheim surrounded with a body of soldiers and gendarmes. The duke, at first, endeavored to defend himself; but the force was too great to be opposed, and he, with several friends and domestics, was captured, and carried prisoner to Strasburg, and immediately after to Vincennes. On the 20th of Mar., he was tried before a court-martial, consisting of