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adopting this method of expressing Scripture truth, generally speak of two covenants, the one of works, the other of grace. In both they see the same contracting partiesGod and man; the same blessing to be secured-eternal life; and the same requirement of perfect obedience: but in the covenant of grace there is a dispensation of mercy, through the divine Mediator, which secures eternal life. I. The covenant of works, though nowhere in Scripture spoken of under that name, is thought to be referred to or implied. Some, indeed, think that it is expressly mentioned in Hosea vi. 7, which they translate, "They, like Adam, have transgressed the covenant." The contrast and analogy which Paul traces between the first and second Adam would (they say) have no basis unless a covenant had been entered into with the one as well as the other. Several essential features of a covenant are (they think) to be seen in the constitution under which Adam was placed: 1. Eternal life was promised him on condition of his obedience; 2. He was constituted the representative of his race; 3. His powers were sufficient for the performance of the condition; 4. He would have secured eternal life for his descendants, as well as for himself, had he continued faithful; 5. The penalty of dis. obedience was death, natural, spiritual, and eternal, as each of these followed a forfeiture of a divine life. After a time (how long is not known) this covenant was broken on the part of man who, “being left to the freedom of his own will, fell from the estate in which he was created." II. The covenant of grace is the name given, according to the view of these theologians, to God's glorious appointment of salvation by grace. We may conceive of the race as fallen, and of a merciful provision being made by which a door is opened wide enough for all mankind to enter, with a system of means by which the actual salvation of a limited number will be secured. Or we may regard the eye of God as fixed first on a limited number of the fallen race, and for their sake alone provid ing an atonement, sufficient indeed for all men, but designed and efficient for the salvation only of that limited number. The latter is the aspect in which the covenant of grace is presented by some at least of its advocates. They suppose that God from eternity, anticipating the temporary character of the covenant of works, ordained another plan by which a portion of mankind would be saved from the ruins of the fall. Why he did not include the whole or a larger portion of mankind within the scope of his saving grace they prefer to leave where, they think, revelation leaves it-to the mere good pleasure of God. And, as the Bible speaks of some who were chosen in Christ before the foundation of the world, they infer that there must have been in eternity an agreement between the persons of the sacred Trinity, according to which a seed was given to the Son to serve him. Without ascribing to the transaction the technicalities of a human compact, they contend that something equivalent to it must have existed. And as men could not act for themselves, the Son of God acted for all those of whom he was to be the spiritual head. To constitute a natural ground for this headship, he was to become Man, uniting his divinity in one person with humanity. He would thus become the federal head of his spiritual seed (as Adam was of his natural descendants), and as such, acting as their representative, the Son would share with them the curse which the first sin brought on the human race, suffering even unto death in its most terrific form. Though these sufferings would not be the same as the doom which otherwise would have come on them spiritually and eternally, they are supposed to be of infinite value on account of his infinite dignity. They are indeed sufficient in objective worth to make expiation for any amount of sin in any number of worlds. They do actually confer innumerable benefits on all men. Through them pardon and salvation are offered to every one who hears the gospel: time, opportunity, and means of grace are afforded to all. But, it is agreed, all are not made partakers of salvation, and only a portion of mankind were eternally given to Christ. Plainly the success of his work was not left uncertain. A seed was secured to him by covenant; and it was with ulti. mate and supreme reference to these that he entered on his work. Such, it is declared, was the covenant of grace as formed in eternity. To this is to be added its accomplishment in time. The administrator of it is the Son of God himself, the mediator between God and man. He has power over all flesh, that he may give eternal life to as many as have been given him. He represented the divine ruler in all the merciful dis pensations of which sacred history informs us. Although at different periods the outward forms of religion have been changed, the covenant of grace, which is the founda tion of all, has always been the same. Believers before the flood, the patriarchs, Job and his friends, the Israelites under the Mosaic dispensation, looked for forgiveness under certain prescribed conditions, and for a city beyond the present world, whose builder and maker is God. All national restriction removed, and the Holy Ghost in his fullness given, the Christian dispensation is the ultimate form in which the covenant of grace will be administered. The Lord Jesus Christ will continue to be its head until the whole world is subdued unto him. Finally, the present economy of things will cease, the dead will be raised, the living changed, all men judged at Christ's bar, and sentence passed on them according to their works. Then having obtained full possession of his kingdom, the Son will deliver it to the Father, either as indicating the close of his mediatorial office, or perhaps only in token of the completeness and loyalty of his work. It may be noted here that there is a form of theology which, recognizing the great facts of salvation by God's eternal grace, and not denying that they may be made

to appear under terms of various covenants, deems it more natural and scriptural to set them forth under the terms of sovereign divine constitutions or ordainments.

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FEE, or FEUD, was the term employed to designate an allotment of land granted by an over-lord to his vassal on condition of certain services to be rendered in return—as, for example, military service in time of war. Under the feudal system it was the characteristic and most prevalent tenure, and the word was used originally in contradis tinction to allodium, or freehold, which implied absolute ownership without condition of service. Gradually, with the disappearance of the feudal system, the word acquired a different meaning, lost its original association with the idea of compensatory services and came to denote simply the estate owned by a landowner. The word estate however, is not used in its ordinary acceptation as the property itself, but in its purely legal sense of a landowner's interest in his land as to the nature and duration of his title. The term fee, when used without qualifying or descriptive expressions, is equivalent to fee simple" and "fee simple absolute"; it is an estate of inheritance, passing directly to the heirs general of the owner if he dies intestate, subject to no restrictions or qualifications, and signifies the highest estate that can be held by any tenure. It may be created by deed and acquired by purchase. In the former case we notice some traces of the old feudal formalities in the survival of the requirement that the word "heirs" of the grantee shall invariably be used in the deed conveying a fee simple; otherwise the interest conferred is held to be simply a life-estate. The stringency of this rule has in some instances been relaxed, and a few of our states, in consideration of its arbitrary character, have abolished it altogether. It does not apply to wills, for here it is the purpose of the law to seek out the true interest of the testator as discernible from the will as a whole, without such precise regard to the terms in which it is expressed, nor is there such a requirement when a corporation is the grantee; and in case of corporation sole, the word " successors is to be used for heirs. The proprietor of an estate in feesimple enjoys the fullest rights of property over his estate, which he may alienate or burden at pleasure, and out of which he may grant estate of a lower kind, as for life or years. He is owner of the soil "a cœlo usque ad centrum," and is therefore entitled to every product of the land, as timber, etc., and to all minerals and other valuable productions found beneath the surface. On his death, the estate descends to his right heirs, except in the case of fees held by corporations, which descend to their successors in office.

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Estates in fee inferior to fee simple are termed "base" or " qualified" or determinable," to indicate the existence of certain restrictions and limitations upon their use or inheritance. Of these there are various kinds. Thus, a fee upon limitation is when an estate is granted to be held until the occurrence of some uncertain event, upon which it reverts to the grantor; but if the event does not take place, to continue in the possession of the grantee and his heirs forever. Or there may be a conditional limitation, in accordance with which, if the specified event takes place, the estate is thereupon transferred to some third person. A fee upon condition is the interest in an estate pending the performance of some stipulated act on the part of the grantee.

A conditional fee was limited to a particular class of heirs, to the exclusion of others, as to a man and the heirs-male of his body. On failure of heirs-male of the body of the grantee, an estate of this kind reverted to the grantor or his heirs. By the statute De Donis Conditionalibus in the reign of Edward I., it was enacted that estates should be held secundum forman doni. Estates created under this statute and known as estates in fee-tail could therefore descend only in the line of heirs indicated by the deed, while a fee-simple goes to the heirs general who may be collateral relatives. At first the grantee was regarded as possessing a mere life-interest in the estate, and could not convey the fee-simple, but this rule was modified by introduction of legal fictions, such as by fines or recoveries, and finally it was premissible for the grantee to transfer the fee-simple by simple conveyance. Fee-tail estates have been of no importance in the United States since the revolution. Some states have abolished this system of tenure by statute; in some it is wholly unknown; while in others the conveyance of the fee-simple bars the entail. See ALLODIUM; CONDITION; CONVEYANCING; ENTAIL; ESTATE; FEOFFMENT; FEUDAL SYSTEM; TENURE OF LAND.

FEEJEE. See FIJI.

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FEE AND LIFE-RENT (in the law of Scotland)-the first of which is the full right of proprietorship, the second the limited right of usufruct during life-may be held together, or may co-exist in different persons at the same time. The settling of the limits of the rights which in the latter case they respectively confer, is of very great prac tical importance, and, from the loose way in which both expressions have been used by conveyancers, by no means free from difficulty. "In common language," says Mr. Bell, they are quite distinct; life-rent importing a life-interest merely, fee a full right of property in reversion after a life-rent. But the proper meaning of the word life-rent has sometimes been confounded by a combination with the word fee, so as in some degree to lose its appropriate sense, and occasionally to import a fee. This seems to have begun chiefly in destinations to husband and wife, in conjunct fee and life-rent and children in fee;' where the true meaning is, that each spouse has a joint life-rent while both live, but cach has a possible fee, as it is uncertain which is to survive. The same

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confusion of terms came to be extended to the case of a destination to parent and child -to A. B. in life-rent, and the heirs of the marriage in fee '-where the word life-rent was held to confer a fee on the parent. It came gradually to be held as the technical meaning of the word 'life-rent to a parent, with fee to his children nascituri,' that the word life-rent meant a fee in the father. Finally, the expression came to be held as strictly limited to its proper meaning by the accompanying word allenarly,' or some similar expression of restriction; or where the fee was given to children nati and nominatim; there being in that case no necessity to divert the word life-rent from its proper meaning, or, on a similar principle, where the settlement was by means of a trust created to take up the fee.' (Prin. s. 1712.)

FEELING. See EMOTION.

FEES. Neither barristers nor physicians could recover their fees by legal proceed. ings against their clients or patients, except under a special contract. The ground of this rule was that they are regarded not as payment, but as an expression of gratitude for services the value of which cannot be appreciated in money. The origin of the rule in the case of the advocates, is traced to the relation which subsisted between patrons and their clients in ancient Rome. When the former appeared as the defenders of the latter, they practiced, as Blackstone says (iii. 29, Kerr's ed.), gratis, for honor merely, or at the most for the sake of gaining influence; and so likewise, it is established with us that a counsel can maintain no action for his fees, which are given, not as locatio vel conductio, but as quiddam honorarium; not as a salary or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which a counselor cannot demand without doing wrong to his reputation. The rule at Rome was maintained even under the emperors, and Tacitus mentions (Ann. lib. ii. c. 5) that it was directed by a decree of the senate that these honoraria should not in any case exceed 10,000 sesterces, or about £80 of English money. It has further been decided in England, that no action lies to recover back a fee given to a barrister to argue a cause which he did not attend (Peake, 122). But special pleaders, equity draftsmen, and conveyancers, who have taken out certificates to practice under the bar, and therefore are not counsel, may recover their reasonable charges for business done by them (Poucher v. Norman, 3 B. and C., 744). Another rule with reference to the fees of barristers and advocates is, that they are paid before they are earned; a rule which, by removing from its members all pecuniary interest in the issue of suits, has done much to maintain the independence and respectability of the bar. As regards physicians, the rule that a fee could not be recovered by an action at law, was applied in the case of Chorley v. Bolcot, June 30, 1791 (4 T. R. 317). If, however, either a barrister or a physician acted under a special agreement or promise of a certain payment, then an action might be brought for the money. But all medical practitioners were relieved from the above code of honor by the act of 21 and 22 Vict. 90, which applied to the United Kingdom, and enabled them to recover in any court of law their reasonable charges as well as costs of medicines and medical appliances used. This rule applies to physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries as defined by the statute. Members of the inferior branches of both professions-attorneys, solicitors, etc., on the one hand, and surgeons, dentists, cuppers, and the like on the other-were always entitled to raise action for their fees. In Scotland, the same rules prevail as in England with reference to both professions. In France, though the delicate sense of honor of the bar has always been preserved with quite as much care as in England, the rule is somewhat different. In law, an action for the recovery of fees would be maintainable in that country by an advocate; but "in Paris, the rule of the ancient bar, founded on the disinterestedness which was its characteristic, and according to which any judicial demand of payment of fees was strictly forbidden under pain of erasure from the table (of advocates), has been religiously preserved." There is no law in the U. S. which puts contracts for services by lawyers or physicians on any different basis from contracts made by other persons. These contracts are almost always, in the case of legal services, by special request. That is, there is usually a particular request to perform the service, though this is not always necessary. If there is a special sum fixed as the amount of the charges, this would be the sum sued for, otherwise the action would be for the reasonable value of the services. The same would be true of physicians. Wherever there is a request for the performance of a service there is an implied promise to pay for that service what it is reasonably worth; and that amount, in the absence of some understanding to the contrary, can be recovered from the client or patient.

FEHÉRVÁR (SZÉKES), the same as the Latin Alba Regia, or the German Stuhlweissenburg, is one of the most ancient royal free towns of Hungary, situated in a marshy dis trict about 40 m. s. w. of Pesth. Under the Arpádian kings, it was the metropolis of the realm, and the residence of the sovereigns, who have been often crowned and buried there. On many occasions, the diets also were held in F., where twelve kings-among which are St. Stephen, and the great Mathias Corvinus-lie buried. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a pop. of (1880) 25,612, chiefly Roman Catholics, and all of the Magyar race. Water is supplied by an artesian well.

FEHMIC COURTS, or VEHMGERICHTE. See FEMGERICHTE.

FEI A, a large lake of Brazil, lies on the maritime border of the province of Rio Jan eiro, and is distant 150 m., to the n.e., from the city of the same name. It is so near to the Atlantic that it has been connected with it by means of a canal. F. is about a degree to the n. of the southern tropic.

FEIGNING OF DISEASE is much practiced in the army and navy, and also by con victs and others anxious to escape from discipline, or procure a discharge from compulsory service. In the army, it is technically called malingering. The detection of feigned disease, of course, necessarily belongs to the highly educated physician, and is impossi ble without a thorough knowledge of the reality, unless, indeed, the imitation be very coarse and badly studied. The diseases most commonly simulated are epilepsy, cata lepsy, convulsions, blindness, deafness, palsy, insanity, indigestion, neuralgia, rheuma ism, palpitation of the heart, and generally all disorders which may exist without leading to any distinct external appearances. Ulcers of the legs, however, have often been made, and kept open artificially through the application of irritant substances; and vomiting or coughing up of blood is very easily simulated, if the supposed patient can get access to the necessary materials in the slaughter-house or elsewhere. The detec tion of such impostures is easy or not according to the opportunities and knowledge and skill of the deceiver, as compared with those brought to bear on the discovery of the fraud. Many men in the public services, and women affected with hysteria, have become so expert as to deceive even men of high character and skill. The writer has known of an instance in which a man submitted to successive amputations of the arm upwards nearly to the shoulder, for an ulcer produced and kept open at will by local applications, and a case was some time ago recorded by Dr. Murchison in the Medico chirurgical Transactions, in which there is no reasonable doubt that a large opening into the stomach was the result of caustic substances deliberately applied to the abdomen, with the view of exciting sympathy.

FEINT (from the Fr. feindre), in military or naval matters, a mock attack or assault, usually made to throw an enemy off his guard against some real design upon his posi tion. See FENCING.

FEITH, RHIJNVIS, a distinguished Dutch poet, who ranks next to Bilderdijk (q.v.) as a reviver of the national poetry, was b. 7th Feb., 1753, at Zwolle in Overyssel,(studied law at Leyden, and returned to his native town in 1776, where he held the office of burgomaster. He died 8th Feb., 1824. F. tried almost all kinds of poetry. In his earlier productions, he showed an excessive inclination for the sentimental; but in 1792 appeared his Het Graf (The Tomb), a didactic poem, which, though not free from the weakness referred to, is yet on the whole happily conceived, and contains some admirable passages. His De Ouderdom (Old Age), published in 1802, is deficient in plan. Among his lyrical pieces, Oden en Gedichten (Odes and Miscellaneous Poems, 4 vols., Amst. 1796-1810), are several marked by a high enthusiasm and warmth of feeling Of his tragedies, the best known are Thirza (1791); Johanna Gray (1791); and Ines de Castro (1793). Along with Bilderdijk, he recast in a nobler form Haren's famous patriotic poem, De Geuzen (Les Gueux, or the Beggars), which celebrates the first struggles of the Dutch for independence. Of F.'s prose works, the most important are Brieven over verscheiden Onderwerpen (Letters on Different Subjects, 6 vols., Amst. 1784-90). These letters, by their polished style and refined criticism, did much to improve the literary

taste of Holland.

FEKE, ROBERT, abt. 1725-69; b. Long Island, N. Y.; one of the earliest of American artists, his portraits dating back to about 1746. He settled in Newport, R. I., but visited Philadelphia, New York, and other cities professionally. It is said that when young he was made a captive and taken to Spain, where he employed himself in making sketches, from the proceeds of which he was enabled to return home.

FELANITCHE', or FELANITZ (anc. Canatix), a t. of the island of Majorca, 27 m. e.s.e. from Palma. It is situated in a valley, surrounded by mountains, and is well built, with a number of squares and wide streets. On a neighboring hill is an ancient Moorish castle, with subterranean vaults. There is some trade in the products of the neighboring country-rice, coffee, sugar, wine, brandy, fruit, and cattle. Its port is Puerte Colon with a safe but shallow harbor. Wine is exported to some extent. Pop. '87, 12,053.

FELDKIRCH, the chief t. in the Vorarlberg district, Tyrolean Austria, at the junction of the valleys of the Rhine and the Ill, 64 m. above the confluence of the two rivers; pop. '91, 3811. It is a place of considerable trade, and has manufactures of cotton, ribbons, etc. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a Jesuit seminary and a Capuchin monastery. Near the place are the ruins of the castle of Schattenburg, where the counts of Montfort had their seat.

FELDMANN, LEOPOLD, a German writer of comedies, was b. at Munich in 1802, of Jewish parents, to whose faith he remained attached. Apprenticed in 1815 to a saddler, and afterwards to a cobbler, he soon gave evidence of his determination to be a poet, by sending, in a pair of shoes which he had mended, a poetical expression of his devotion to their fair wearer. For this his master sent him back to school, where in 1817, when only 15 years old, he wrote a play, Der Falsche Eid (The False Oath), which was actually

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produced on the stage. After spending a few years in business at Pappenheim, and subsequently in Munich, he was induced, by the reputation which he gained from some humorous pieces, entitled Genrebilder, to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1835, his Höllen-lieder (Hell-Songs) appeared; and his first comedy, Der Sohn auf Reisen (The Son on his Travels), was acted in Munich with applause. While traveling thereafter for five years, chiefly in Greece, he wrote "Pictures of Travel" for Lewald's Europa, and the correspondence for the Allgemeine Zeitung. In 1841, his comedy was produced in Vienna, and after 1850, he was employed as the histrionic teacher in the national theater of that capital. F.'s works, which are numerous, are reckoned among the best specimens of modern German comedy, pleasing by their cheerful humor, and happy employment of contemporary ideas and events, though complained of as deficient in artistic finish. F. published a collection of his comedies Deutsche Originallustspiele (Original German Comedies), 1844-52; new series, 1855-57. He d. 1882.

FELDSPAR (Ger. feldspath, field-spar), a mineral extremely abundant in almost all parts of the world. It is a principal constituent of many rocks, as granite, gneiss, greenstone, trachyte, etc.; and clays seem very generally to have resulted, at least in great part, from its decomposition. It occurs both massive and crystallized, in rhomboidal, pyramidal, and prismatic crystals, often having their edges and angles truncated, and thus very variously modified. There are many different kinds of F., which mineralogists have recently attempted to arrange in mineral species, distinguished by physical and chemical characters, and also by geognostic position, and by the groups of minerals with which they are associated. For these mineral species new names have been invented, orthoclase, oligoclase, albite, labradorite, etc. All the feldspars are anhydrous silicates of alumina, and of an alkali or lime. Orthoclase, and the other more silicious feldspars containing potash, abound chiefly in granite and the plutonic rocks; the less silicious, containing soda and lime, characterize the volcanic rocks-"as labradorite the basaltic group, glassy feldspar the trachytic." All the kinds of F. are so hard as not to be easily scratched with a knife, and are fused with difficulty. Some of them are soluble, some insoluble in acids.-The kind known as COMMON F.-referred to orthoclaseis generally white or flesh-colored, has a glassy and somewhat pearly luster, is translucent at least on the edges, and has an uneven or splintery fracture. Crystals four or five inches long are found in Aberdeenshire. This variety, under the name of petunse or petuntze, is used by the Chinese in the manufacture of porcelain; along with some of the quartz which is associated with it in the rock. It is used, with other materials, as a flux; and alone to form an enamel or glassy covering, without which the porcelain would absorb moisture and grease, and would be unfit for any except mere ornamental purposes. ADULARIA is a transparent and almost colorless variety of F., often cut as an ornamental stone, the finest varieties, of which one is known as MOONSTONE, being prized almost as gems. A variety, found among rolled stones in Ceylon, and remarkable for the reflection of a pearly light, has been sometimes confounded with cat's eye.— AVANTURINE F. is similar to the variety of quartz called avanturine (q.v.) in the play of light which it exhibits, and which is said to be owing to minute crystals of specular or titanic iron. It is much esteemed as an ornamental stone. A variety with golden yellow specks, called SUNSTONE, is very rare and very beautiful: it sells at a high price.-LABRADORITE exhibits rich colors and a beautiful opalescence, on account of which it is much used for ornamental purposes.-A blue variety of F., found only in Styria, and a green variety, sometimes called amazon stone, are also esteemed as precious stones. -All the finer varieties of F. are characterized by a soft beauty, which well compensates for the want of that brilliancy which belongs to the true gems.

Kaolin, or porcelain clay, is regarded as a decomposed feldspar.-To F. also are referred, as chiefly composed of it, or apparently derived from it, felstone, trachyte, claystone, clinkstone, pitchstone, obsidian, and pumice.

FELEGYHA'ZA, a t. of Little Cumania, Hungary, is situated on the railway between Pesth and Temesvar, 67 m. s. e. from the former. It has an extensive trade in grain, fruit, wine, tobacco, and cattle. In the neighborhood, several Roman urns have been found. Pop. '90, 30,326.

FELICE, FORTUNATO BARTOLOMMEO DE, 1723-89; an Italian author; studied in Rome and Naples under Jesuit teachers. Having abducted a nun from a convent he fled to Switzerland, settled at Berne, and became a Protestant. He subsequently founded a school and a printing-office at Yverdun, where he published a literary periodical and some political works. His chief work was an Encyclopædia in 48 quarto vols. with 10 vols of illustrations, in which he was assisted by Euler and others.

FELICITAS, SAINT, a Christian martyr who with her seven sons suffered death in the 2d century. All were arraigned together, and all refused to renounce Christianity. The mother was beheaded, and the sons were killed in various manners. Another St. Felicitas suffered death with St. Perpetua under Caracalla about the beginning of the 3d century.

FELICU'DI. See LIPARI ISLANDS.

FE'LIDE, or FELI'NE, a family of digitigrade carnivorous quadrupeds (see CARNIVORA and DIGITIGRADA) corresponding to the genus felis of Linnæus, and sometimes

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