ENGLAND. favourite one, an opportunity for attempting it on a great scale never again presented itself. The great struggles of the successors of William were with the ecclesiastics and with the barons. Sometimes in these the popular sympathies were with, and sometimes against the crown. The conqueror himself and his immediate successors had no difficulty in maintaining the superiority of the courts of justice over the ecclesiastics; but even a sovereign sc bold and skilful as Henry II. was forced, after the outcry occasioned by the murder of Thomas-à-Becket (1170 A. D.), to yield the point. The right to nominate the higher ecclesiastics was also secured by the popes. The degradation of the English monarchy was at its lowest when King John consented (1213 A.D.) to hold the crown as a gift from Rome. The weaknesses of this monarch had good as well as evil results, for from him the barons won their Great Charter (1215 A.D.). From Henry II. something similar had already been gained; but it was the Magna Charta of John which firmly established two great English principles-that no man should suffer arbitrary imprisonment, and that no tax should be imposed without the consent of the council of the nation. Under Edward I., the famous statute that no manner of tax should be imposed without the common consent of the bishops, barons, and burgesses of the realm, was passed (1296 A. D.); and before the time of Henry VII., the foundations of parliamentary government had been laid. A new act was passed giving to the magistrates the power of judging in questions of heresy. The next step was the suppression of nearly 400 of the smaller monasteries. The subsidence of an insignificant popular reaction, incited by the lower clergy, was followed by the suppression of the great abbeys. All these changes, however, touched only matters of church government. On matters of faith, Henry and his parliaments were as orthodox as the most conservative could wish. They embodied the leading doctrines of Romanism, disputed by the Protestants, in an act of parliament, known among the people as the bloody six articles,' and enforced conformity under severe penalties. Henry was succeeded by Edward VI. His reign was marked by the general progress which the Reformation now made from questions of government to questions of doctrine. More thoroughly than ever the power of the clergy was sapped. The Book of Common Prayer (1548 A.D.) deprived them of the mysterious authority which the use of a foreign language in worship gave them in the eyes of the people, and the 42 Articles of the Church of England (1552 A. D.), the foundation of the present 39, denied, among other things, their power to work miracles in the elevation of the mass. The next reign saw the inevitable reaction. The superstitions of the populace had been too rudely handled, and-as often happens before a crisis— there came a period of physical suffering. The conThe union of the houses of York and Lancaster version of cornfields into sheep-walks, induced by under Henry VII. begins a new period in English|the high value of wool as an article of export, had history. Part of his reign was disturbed by thrown many out of employment; and the country Perkin Warbeck and other pretenders to the throne, was, moreover, infested with the crowd of vagrants in support of whose claims the turbulent nobles whom the monasteries had been wont to maintain. found vent for their restlessness. But the greater The popular dissatisfaction coupled these things part of his long reign was distinguished from with the Reformation. Thus the opportunity was preceding reigns as a time of peace and economy. prepared for the atrocities of the reign of Mary. During it, men's minds ripened for the great The queen herself was interested, by her mother's events of the next reign. Henry VIII. succeeded, honour and her own, to uphold the Romanist under the most favourable auspices. He found the faith; and her gloomy temper, aggravated by her alliance of his now important country courted by unhappy childless marriage, believed that it did both of his great contemporaries, Francis I. and true service to God when it gave the rein to Charles V. But the interest of the foreign compli- the bigotry of Pole and Bonner. In her first cations of the reign merges in the struggle between parliament (1553 A.D.), the whole legislation of the courts of E. and of Rome. The origin of the Edward VI. was repealed, leaving the Church of contest was the divorce which Henry desired to England one in ceremonial and doctrine with the have from Catharine of Aragon, his brother's Church of Rome. Another parliament (1555 A.D.) widow, to whom he had been married by papal repealed the legislation of Henry VIII., thus reLicence. Cranmer and the English Church pro- establishing the papal supremacy. Everything that nounced the marriage to be null, but a formal the reformers had done was thus undone. Still decree of divorce by the head of the church was the adherents of the Reformation were numerous, then thought necessary in Catholic Europe. Pope and when legislation failed to convert them, the Clement and the consistory, influenced by Spanish fires of Smithfield were tried. Hooper, Bishop of counsels, delayed, by every possible means, the Gloucester, was one of the first to suffer. Latimer, decision of the question. E., however, was ready Ridley, Cranmer, followed, and the number who enough to support Henry. Wickliffe and his adher- perished is not less than 300 by fire, and 100 by ents had done not a little to shake the attach-torture and the cruelties of confinement. Nothing ment of the nation to a foreign spiritual authority, by preaching doctrines which dispensed with the necessity for it. A parliament met, when the Commons took the significant step of presenting a long memorial of complaints against the church. The pope, still shewing no signs of yielding, bills followed, declaring the king the head of the church; rendering the inferior clergy amenable to the civil courts; abolishing the payment of the first year's fruits of ecclesiastical livings to Rome; and perhaps a more important thing than any of these, declaring that no convocation should meet unless the king should summon it, and that no ecclesiastical canons should have force except with the king's consent. To these measures the pope replied by refusing the divorce, and excommunicating the king (1533 A. D.). The breach thus became irreparable. more was wanted to turn the popular mind at once and for ever from the Church of Rome. The accession of the Protestant princess Elizabeth came as a relief to the whole nation. The Romanists themselves were weary of the policy which made E the tool of Spain, and were sickened with the cruelties which had been enacted. Eliza beth began by releasing from prison all confined on charges of heresy. Parliament followed (1559 A. D.) with acts restoring the royal supremacy over the church, and returning in general to the legis lation of Edward VI. The Prayer-book and the Thirty-nine Articles were adjusted as they still exist. Fortunately for the country, the ministry of Elizabeth, guided by the able hand of Cecil, was one of peace. No opportunity was lost of aiding the Protestant cause throughout Europe; but Elizabeth had almost no open wars, and her long ENGLAND. reign was disturbed by almost no domestic collisions. The mistake committed in detaining the queen of Scotland in an English prison gave a constant incitement to disaffection among the adherents of the old faith, but no serious consequences ensued. Towards the close of the reign, Protestant and Catholic were alike patriotic in repelling the Armada (1588 A. D.). On the death of Elizabeth, the crowns of E. and Scotland were united. The government for the next four years was conducted by parliament. Meanwhile, Cromwell was rising into distinction, and power gradually fell from the hands of parliament into those of the military. In 1653, Cromwell had himself proclaimed 'Protector.' He was now absolute monarch. He governed with a firm hand, and never was E more respected abroad than during his time. In 1654, he concluded peace with Holland, and employed the gallant Admiral Blake in an expedition against The reign of James VI. does not present much the Spaniards, which ended brilliantly for the that is remarkable. The plot, for which Sir English navy. But the nation grew as discontented Walter Raleigh suffered long afterwards, and the with the government of Cromwell as it had been Gunpowder Plot-the insignificant proportions of with that of Charles. After the death of the Prowhich were so magnified for factious purposes-tector in 1658, and a short interval during which disturbed the earlier years; and the close of the his son Richard held the office, parliament received reign found the nation engaged in an unfortunate with acclamations a proposal from Charles II. to war to assist the king's son-in-law, Frederick, return. In May 1660, the populace clamoured with Elector of Bohemia, against the Emperor Ferdinand delight on the royal entry to London of him who, II. of Germany. But for the greater portion of the a few years before, had fled from Worcester for his 23 years of the reign, there was neither foreign life. nor domestic war. These years the king occupied industriously in rendering monarchy odious and contemptible. He lavished money upon unworthy favourites, and to supply his extravagance, openly sold the dignities of the peerage and the other honours of the state. His personal demeanour was vain, weak, and ridiculous; but in contrast with the insignificance of his talents was his extravagant conception of the extent of his royal prerogative. His conduct occasioned great discontent in parliament, and but for his timidity, might have led to more serious consequences. While Clarendon was minister, the government of Charles II. was well conducted. A war with Holland was brought to a successful ending in the conquest of New York. On Clarendon's resignation, the government passed into the hands of the ministry known as the Cabal. They were as profligate and as careless as the king himself. A succession of cruelties against the Catholics, for which the pretended revelations of Titus Oates and his imitators furnished the excuse, betokened rather the wanton temper of the sovereign and the nation, than any zeal for the Protestant religion. The only act The misfortunes of Charles I. were the legitimate which reflects much credit on any portion of the result of the principles of his father. Charles com-reign was the passing, in 1679, of the Habeas Corpus mitted the mistake of repeating, in the 17th c., acts which the Plantagenet sovereigns had done with impunity in the 14th and 15th. One of his first acts was to exact a benevolence to carry on the war. Had he been successful, this might have been overlooked, but when the bad management of the Duke of Buckingham lost the fleet off Rochelle, the indignation of the Commons was without bounds. In place of taking measures to allay this feeling, the king dissolved the parliament, and resolved to govern without calling another. In 1630, he concluded peace, and for the next seven years, in council with Strafford and Laud, he carried on the government. Taxes were raised as before without parliamentary authority; and when the taxes failed, money was raised by selling to the Roman Catholics immunities from the penal laws against their worship. Nevertheless, there were limits to these methods of raising money; and in 1637, when the king found himself involved in a war with Scotland, in consequence of his endeavour to introduce a liturgy there, he was compelled to call a parliament. The Commons refused supplies, and were again dissolved. In 1640, the king once more summoned a parliament. He found the temper of the Houses more indomitable than ever. In place of voting him supplies, they impeached his minister Strafford, and condemned him to death. The Commons then presented a grand remonstrance to the king, embodying all the grievances the nation had suffered since the death of Elizabeth. Matters proceeded from bad to worse, till an open rupture came, and an appeal was made to arms. In August 1642, the king erected his standard at Nottingham, while the rebels took arms under the Earl of Essex. The first conflict was at Edgehill, where the loss on both sides was severe and nearly equal. The fortune of war continued to vary, till at Marston Moor it turned against Charles, and at Naseby, in June 1645, he was finally defeated. He was executed on 30th January 1649. Act, designed more effectually to protect the liberty of the person. Strong efforts were made in parlia ment after that to pass the Exclusion Bill, the object of which was to exclude the Duke of York, as a Roman Catholic, from the succession. To the great satisfaction of the king, parliament rejected the bill. In 1681, parliament was dissolved, and Charles II. never called another. After this there was a change for the worse in the character of the government; from being wan tonly indifferent, it became sullenly mischievous. Presbyterians and Nonconformists were excluded from all offices. Among other arbitrary acts, may be mentioned the recall of their charters from London and many of the other principal cities, which were only restored, with diminished privileges, on payment of heavy fines. Conduct such as this made men more than ever afraid of the succession of the king's brother. A conspiracy to secure the succession to the Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of the king, was formed. Lord Howard betrayed the conspiracy, and among others who suffered death for it were Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney. When the king died, in 1685, James II. succeeded amid universal dissatisfaction. Monmouth's attempt to seize the throne, however, was mismanaged, and failed. The punishment of those who had aided his rising formed an occasion for the perpetration of great cruelties by Jeffreys, then chief justice of England. In the meantime, nothing could be fairer than the king's language. He issued a declaration in favour of general toleration, and announced that the penal laws against Catholics were no longer to be enforced. A second declaration to the same effect was issued, but he went further, and added to it an order that the clergy should read it in all churches. The Archbishop of Canterbury and six bishops presented an address to the throne, humbly setting forth that their duty to maintain the Protestant establishment would not permit them t ENGLAND-ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. For this give obedience to the royal mandate. they were indicted as guilty of sedition. The trial of the bishops (1688 A. D.) was the turning-point of James's career. It created immense excitement, and when the jury returned a verdict of not guilty, even the soldiers joined in the tumultuous rejoicings. William, Prince of Orange, who had married Mary, the eldest daughter of the king, had long been intriguing with the malcontents. He now landed in E. with a small body of troops. The soldiers, the leading nobles, even the king's own children, joining the prince, the king fled to France. Parliament then settled the crown jointly on William and Mary for life. James, with the assistance of Louis XIV., made one effort to regain his throne. He landed in Ireland, where the lord lieutenant, Tyrconnel, was devoted to his cause, and managed to raise an army. William defeated him at the battle of the Boyne; and the contest was soon after this terminated by the second flight of James to France. So easily was the great revolution of 1688 effected. The domestic government of William was marked by his efforts to introduce a general toleration; but of his foreign administration, which led the country into costly wars, it is hardly possible to speak in very favourable terms. To reduce the threatening power of France, E., in alliance with Holland and George I., Germany, embarked in a protracted contest. termination at the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, brought to E. nothing beyond an increase of reputation. William died in 1702. Its Under Queen Anne, the war with France was renewed, and the Duke of Marlborough's splendid victories of Oudenarde, Blenheim, and Ramilies were achieved. With these the history of E. as a separate state closes. In 1707, the long-wished-for union with Scotland was accomplished; and after that, Great Britain, united under one legislature, as well as under one crown, has a common interest among nations, and therefore a common history. A table of the English sovereigns is appended, beginning with Alfred, and continued, for convenience' sake, to the present time: George II., George III. George IV., William IV., Victoria, 33 1702 13 ENGLAND, NEW. See NEW ENGLAND. ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. A brief sketch of the origin and early history, as well as an outline of the doctrine and form of government of this church, will be found under the head ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH, OR ANGLICAN CHURCH. See also the Articles AUGUSTINE and DUNSTAN. Up to the time of the Reformation, ecclesiastical affairs would be more properly described as the history of the Church in England; from that period the Church of England dates her existence. She, however, retains so much of antiquity, and her institutions, laws, and formularies are so interwoven with the history of the past, that it would be impossible to have any correct or connected view of them, and of her connection with the state, her characteristic feature, without at least glancing rapidly over the leading events between the Conquest and the reign of Henry VIII. During the three centuries from the Norman Conquest (1066) to the preaching of Wickliffe (1356), her history can be regarded only as a continual struggle between the ecclesiastical and civil power, and there would be little else to describe than the methods by which the mitre triumphed over the crown, and the crown invaded the rights and property of the church. In the time of William I., nearly half the country was in the hands of spiritual persons. He ejected the English clergy, and supplanted them with Normans; and although he was possessed of full power over the church, yet in his reign were sown the seeds of future papal encroachments. Papal legates were then first introduced into England, and the ecclesiastical courts separated from the civil. From this time, the increased influence of Rome may be traced to the defective titles, the usurpations, and the violent conduct of the kings. Thus, the defective title of Henry I. made him seek popularity by recalling the primate Anselm, who had incurred the displeasure of his brother William, and had fled the country Anselm was devoted to the pope, who had espoused his quarrel, and refused to do homage to the king for the temporalities of his see, till at length Henry ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. found himself obliged to surrender the right of Investiture. Thus, too, Stephen's usurpation opened the way for further encroachments; and Henry II., who found the power of Rome greatly augmented, helped to extend it further, by accepting a grant of Ireland from the pope. Then followed the opposition of Thomas-à-Becket, which arose out of the question of the punishment of ecclesiastics by the civil power. For the moment, it seemed that the quarrel was healed by the Constitutions agreed on at Clarendon 19. v.), but it broke out more violently than ever. The pope discharged Becket from his oath, and condemned the Constitutions. Becket had fled from the kingdom; and his subsequent return, murder, and canonisation, all tended to strengthen the authority of the church. It was not, however, till the reign of John, when England was laid under an interdict, and the king resigned his crown to the pope, that the papal encroachments rose to their height; and the weak reign of Henry III., which followed, did nothing to abate them. Edward I. gave a check to the power of the clergy, subjected them to taxation, and passed the statute of Mortmain (1279), which prohibited the transfer of land without the king's consent. There is little to be said as to innovations in doctrine during these three centuries; but it may be noted, that about the middle of this period, viz., 1213, the council of St John Lateran declared transubstantiation, or the bodily presence of Christ in the consecrated elements, to be a tenet of the church. It was in 1356 that a new period commenced. Wickliffe then published his first work, entitled The Last Age of the Church, directed against the Dovetousness of the Church of Rome. His docbrines correspond in many points with those now taught by the Church of England, but he differed from her in regard to the necessity of Episcopacy, which he rejected; he also believed in purgatory, and permitted prayers for the dead. His chief objects of attack were the papal indulgences, and the doctrine of transubstantiation. It has been observed concerning the condemnation at Oxford of Wickliffe's opinions with respect to the latter, that this was the first plenary determination of the Church of England in the case, so that this doctrine, which brought so many to the stake, had but with us 140 years' prescription before the times of Martin Luther. In a limited sense, he upheld the efficacy of the seven sacraments. Wickliffe had a large body of followers. They were called Lollards, probably from a German word, lullen, to sing with a low voice. The storm of persecution which he escaped by death, fell upon them. Henry IV. thought it necessary to fortify his usurped position by assisting the bishops against the Lollards, and from this time to the Reformation, there was an uninterrupted succession of confessors and martyrs. Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, was the most illustrious of these sufferers. Fox gives a detailed account of nearly twenty individuals burned for heresy between the death of Lord Cobham and 1509, when Henry VIII. ascended the throne. To some extent, the blood of these martyrs was the seed of the Reformed Church; but we must not overlook the 'hidden seed' which was growing secretly, from the time that Wickliffe gave to his countrymen a translation of the Scriptures in their own tongue. The progress of learning, and especially the study of Greek, led to a better understanding of the sacred books, whilst the invention of printing (1442) caused a wider circulation of them. The above causes, however, would probably have proved insufficient to produce the great change which was now impending. had not Henry VIII's divorce from Catharine of Spain led to a quarrel between him and the pope, which ended in the total abolition of the papal authority within the kingdom. Then began the REFORMATION in earnest. For the details of that great event, consult the article under that head, and the lives of such men as Wolsey, Sir Thomas More, Fisher, Clement, Luther, Cromwell, Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, &c. From this period may be dated the existence of the Church of England as a separate body, and her final separation from Rome. For the opinions of the church in Henry's reign, two important books which were then published should be consulted-viz., the Bishop's Book, or the Golly and Pious Institution of a Christian Man, and the King's Book, which was a republication of the same in a more perfect form in 1543, and called The Necessary Erudition for any Christian Man, and was called the King's Book because put forth by royal authority. A book of Articles devised by the Kinges Highnes Majestie to stablyshe Christen Unitie, should also be consulted. It has been stated in the article ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH, that the reformation in doctrine did not make much progress in Henry's reign; from these books, it will be seen that it was rather retrograde. The monks, too, who were dispossessed at the dissolution of the monasteries, were dispersed amongst local cures, and kept alive the old opinions, and the lower orders were not as yet favourable to the new doctrines. Cranmer was the leader and presiding genius of the Reformed opinions; and the youth of Edward VI. left the king pliant in the hands of the archbishop. The Book of Homilies, put forth in 1540, the New Communion Service and Catechism in 1548, the first Book of Common Prayer in 1549, and the Forty-two Articles in 1553, all bear the impress of his hand, and it was these which advanced and fixed the doctrines of the Reformation. Nor was the temporal authority idle on the same side-Bonner and Gardiner were committed to prison, and both were deprived of their bishoprics. In fact, the way in which all the institutions of the Church of England were established in Edward VI.'s reign by the help of the civil magistrate, have brought upon her the charge of Erastianism. The civil power had just delivered her from a foreign tyranny; and when the weak health of the young king, the known sentiments of his successor, Mary, the ignorance of the common people, and the interested views of the old clergy, are considered, it cannot be a matter of surprise, still less of blame, that the same arm was relied upon for the establishment of the new forms of religion. Although Mary promised at her accession that she would put constraint on no person's religion, her promise was not kept. Bonner and Gardiner were restored; the Book of Common Prayer and Catechism were declared heretical; the kingdom was reconciled to the see of Rome; a persecution of the chief reformers commenced-Rogers was burned at Smithfield, Hooper at Gloucester, Saunders at Coventry, Taylor at Hadley. The prisons were filled with 'heretics;' many fled beyond sea; some purchased safety by an outward conformity. Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley perished in the flames at Oxford. Cardinal Pole was made primate. One benefit was conferred on the church by Mary-she surrendered all the church lands, as well as the first fruits and tenths, which had been seized by Henry. At last the death of Mary, with which that of the cardinal was all but simultaneous, delivered the church from its oppressors. The passing of the Act of Uniformity in the first year of Elizabeth's reign, restored the Common Prayer-book to general use, and enjoined the same dresses as were in use at the time of the first Prayer-book of Edward VL ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. All the bishops except one, Kitchin of Llandaff, refused to take the oath of uniformity, and were ejected from their sees to the number of 14 (the eleven remaining sees were vacant by deaths), and 175 other beneficed clergy were deprived for the same cause-no very considerable number, when it is remembered that there were then 9400 benefices in England. There was some difficulty in filling up the vacant bishoprics, and perhaps some slight informalities. Matthew Parker was made Archbishop of Canterbury. For the refutation of the fable of the NAG'S-HEAD CONSECRATION, see the article under that head. In 1562, the Thirty-nine Articles were finally reviewed and subscribed. These, with the Book of Common Prayer, are the tests of orthodoxy in the Church of England. But what was done to satisfy the scruples of Protestant nonconformists ? An attempt in this direction was made in the reign of James I. at the HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE (q. v.). The result was another review of the Common Prayerbook; and this, with the new translation of the Bible, and the passing of the canons of 1604, were the principal ecclesiastical events of James's reign. These canons received the sanction of the crown, but not that of parliament; they are not, therefore, binding on the laity, but they are still binding on the clergy to some extent, and they regulate the practice of the ecclesiastical courts, and are the only rule, on some points, to which the bishops and clergy can appeal. See the articles LAUD and SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, for the events of Charles I.'s reign. The great rebellion overthrew both church and state. The bishops were declared delinquents,' robbed of their property, and abolished; and the clergy were ejected from their benefices. Laud was put to death in 1645. The Church of England had no corporate existence during this interval. With the restoration of the monarchy, 1660, came the restoration of the church. The reaction from Puritanism to Prelacy was complete. Attempts were made, but with small success, to win over the Puritan leaders; bishoprics were offered to Baxter, Calamy, and Reynolds; but the last only accepted. The SAVOY CONFERENCE (q. v.) was an unsuccessful, perhaps insincere attempt to comprehend the nonconformists in the Established Church. But the demands of the Presbyterians were most immoderate. Baxter went so far as to propose the substitution of an entirely new book of his own composition, in the place of the Common Prayer-book. After the failure of the Savoy Conference, this was once more reviewed; and a new Act of Uniformity in 1662 made its use, as it now stands, compulsory in all the churches. landed in England. It is worthy of remark, that out of these seven bishops three refused to swear allegiance to him, and were joined by a consider able number of the clergy; these were called Non jurors. In the first year of William and Mary's reign, the Toleration Act was passed, and dissent ceased to be illegal. Another attempt was made to comprehend the nonconformists in the church, but the lower house of Convocation was in no tolerant mood, and the attempt failed, but chiefly in conse quence of the disturbances in Scotland. In 1717, Convocation was dissolved. After slumbering for nearly 140 years, it has been once more called into life and action in the province of Canterbury. See the article CONVOCATION. That the Church of England, after fighting for its very existence against popery on the one hand, and against Puritanism on the other, should have subsided into inactivity during the dull reigns of the Georges, is less a matter of surprise than of regret. The peaceful enjoyment of her temporalities in a dull, irreligious, not to say intidel age, may easily account for, though it cannot excuse, her idleness. But that in the rise of John Wesley, 1730, she should have failed to see a grand opportunity for herself, is a matter of both surprise and regret; she, however, let it pass; nor can she hope that such another will ever again present itself. The utmost that can be hoped is, that she has seen her error. The next important event in the history of the church is the Act of Union, which came into effect on the 1st of January 1801, and united the churches of England and Ireland in all matters of doctrine, worship, and discipline. The Reformation had made some progress in Ireland under Edward VI. Five Protestant bishops were appointed in 1550, and the English Bible and Liturgy were introduced in 1551; but from a variety of causes, the Reformed doctrines have never found much acceptance with the native population; and although a Protestant church was established by law, it was and is the church of the minority (see IRELAND). In 1635, the English Articles were received; and in 1662, the English Book of Common Prayer was adopted by convocation. Before the political union of the countries, the two churches were in full communion. By an act of the imperial parliament in 1833, ten of the Irish bishoprics were suppressed, and the funds thus obtained were applied to the augmentation of small livings and the building and repair of churches. There are now twelve Irish bishops. In later times, two great controversies have shaken the English Church, but have led to nothing more than some internal divisions, and the The Church of England passed through one more secession of some members to Rome, and a few to critical period before reaching that tranquillity in the ranks of dissent. These were the Tractarian which, for upwards of a century, she slumbered too and the Gorham controversies. The former was Becurely. In 1687, James II. published the famous occasioned by some Tracts which began to be Declaration of Indulgence, which filled up the published at Oxford in 1833, the object of which measure of popular discontent, and finally cost him was to revive something of the spirit of Catholic his crown. Although by this declaration, which antiquity, and reform the abuses and slovenly was perfectly illegal, liberty of conscience was per- practices which had crept into every part of the mitted to all his subjects, it was clearly understood church system. See TRACTARIANISM. The Gorthat the liberty was intended only for the papists. ham Controversy (q. v.) related to the doctrine The nonconformists refused to accept the treacher- of baptismal regeneration. The Tractarians are ous boon. Eighteen bishops out of twenty-five accused of Romanising tendencies; and their views, refused to publish the declaration, as ordered, in when carried to extremes, undoubtedly lead in their dioceses. Seven of them-Sancroft, Lloyd, that direction, as is proved by the numerous Ken, Turner, Lake, White, and Trelawny-drew up secessions to that church. With the extreme Low a remonstrance to the king; they were summoned Church party, Episcopacy is rather an expedient before the privy council, and sent to the Tower. than a necessary form of church government. They The whole city was in commotion; and great was think but little of the efficacy of sacraments, and the rejoicing when, on being brought to trial in deny that regeneration necessarily takes place in Westminster Hall, they were acquitted. On the 5th infant baptism. Justification by faith, the atoneof November following, 1638, the Prince of Orangement of the cross, and the Calvinistic doctrines on |