ERIIR-EMOTION.

1

EMOTION.

appearance of a comet gives far more of this neutral effect than of the others. It is a thing that possesses our mind at the time, and is afterwards vividly remembered by us, and these are the chief consequences of its having roused our wonder.

The Physical Accompaniments of emotion are a part of its nature. It has been remarked in all ages, that every strong passion has a certain outward expression or embodiment, which is the token of its presence to the beholder. The child soon learns to interpret the signs of feeling. Joy, Grief, Affection, Fear, Rage, Wonder, have each a characteristic expression; and painters, sculptors, and poets, have adopted the demeanour of passion as a subject for their art. There must be some deep connection in the human frame between the inward states of consciousness and the physical or corporeal activities, to produce results so uniform throughout the human race. When we study the facts closely, we obtain decisive proof of the concurrence of the following members and organs in the manifestation of feeling.

terror, anger, and intense bodily or mental occupa tion. The Skin is known to respond to the condition of the mind; the cold sweat in fear is a derange ment of its healthy functions. The Respiration may be quickened or depressed according to the feelings. The action of the Heart and the Circulation of the Blood are subject to the same causes. The nature of this influence was explained under BLUSHING. Lastly, in women, the Lacteal Secretion participates in the states of emotion, being abundant, healthy, and a source of pleasure in a tranquil condition of mind, while grief and strong passions change it to a deleterious quality.

The connection between mental emotion and bodily states being thus a fact confirmed by the universal experience of mankind, can we explain this connection upon any general law or principle of the human constitution? Have we any clue to the mysterious selection of some actions as expressing pleasure, and others as expressing pain? The reply is, that there is one principle or clue that unravels much of the complexity of this subject-namely, that states of pleasure are usually accompanied an increase in some or all of the vital functions, nd states of pain with a depression or weakening of vital functions. This position may be maintained on a very wide induction of facts, many of them very generally recognised, and others open to any careful observer; there being, however, some appearances of an opposite kind, which have to be satisfactorily accounted for, before we can cons.der it as fully

In the first place, the muscles or moving organs are affected Under strong excitement, the whole body is animated to gesticulation; in less powerful feelings, the expression confines itself more to the features or the movements of the face. These last have been analysed by Sir Charles Bell. The face has three centres of movement-the Mouth, Eyes, and Nose; the mouth being most susceptible, and therefore the most expressive feature. In the Eyes, expression is constituted by the two opposite move-established. ments of the eyebrows; the one raising and arching them (prompted by a muscle of the scalp, occipitofrontalis), the other corrugating and wrinkling them. The one movement is associated with pleasing states, the other with painful. The Nose is acted on by several muscles, the most considerable of which is one that raises the wing together with the upper lip, and is brought into play under the disgust of a bad smell and in expressing dislike generally. The Mouth is principally made up of one ring-like muscle (orbicularis), from which nine pairs radiate to the cheeks and face. In pleasing emotions, the mouth is drawn out by the action of two pairs of muscles, named the buccinator and zygomatic, situated in the cheek. The expression of pain is determined by the contraction of the aperture of the mouth, through the relaxation of those muscles, and the contraction of the ring-like muscle that constitutes the flesh of the lips; and by two muscles in the chin, one depressing the angle of the mouth, and the other raising the middle of the lower lip, as in pouting. Besides the features, the Voice is instinctively affected under strong feelings; the shouts of hilarious excitement, the cry of sharp pain, and the moan of protracted agony, are universally known. Another important muscle of expression is the Diaphragm, or midriff, a large muscle dividing the chest from the abdomen, and regularly operating in expiration. In laughter, this muscle is affected to convulsion.

In the second place, the organic functions of the syster are decidedly influenced for good or evil ander emotion. The glandular and other organs acted on in this way comprehend the most important viscera of the body. The Lachrymal Secretion is specifically affected under passion; the flow of tears being accelerated to a rush, instead of pursuing the tranquil course of keeping the eyeball moist and clean. The states of the Sexual Organs are connected with the strongest feelings of the mind, being both the cause and the effect of mental excitement. The Digestion is greatly subject to the feelings, being promoted by joy and hilarity, not in too great excess, and arrested and disturbed under pain, grief,

th

If we consider first the respective agents or causes of pleasure and pain, we must acknowledge that they are very generally of a nature to accord with the view now stated. How many of the sources of pleasure are obviously sources of increased energy of some vital organs. The case of Food is too obvious to need any comment. Warmth within limits both confers pleasure and stimulates the skin, the digestion, and other functions. Fresh air exhilarates the mind, while quickening the respiratory function. Light is believed to stimulate the vital actions no less than the mental tone. And if there be some pleasures of sense, such as mere sweetness of taste, fragrant odours, music, &c., that do not obviously involve greater energy of vital function, they might be seen to do so, if we knew more than we do respect. ing the operation of the various organs, and we are certain that they do not have the opposite effect. Medical authorities are so much impressed with the general tendency of pleasures, that they include them in the list of stimulants in cases of low vitality. If we pass from the senses to the special emotions, such as Wonder, Power, Tender Affection, Taste, we find that when those are pleasing, they also increase the animal forces at some point or other. A stroke of victory sends a thrill through the whole system; and if the pulse were examined at that moment, we should find that it beats stronger. The illustration for Pains is exactly parallel, but still more striking. It is notorious that hurts, wounds, fatigue, ill-health, hunger, chillness, nauseous tastes and odours, the silence of a prison, the gloom of utter darkness, failure, humiliation, contumely, deprivation of one's usual comforts and pleasures while causing pain, cause in a corresponding degree a depression of the powers of the system. There are some apparent exceptions, as in the stimulus of the whip, the bracing agency of cold, and the effect of misery generally in rousing men from lethargy to action, but these could all be shown to be quite compatible with the main principle.

If we turn from the agents to the expression, or modes of manifestation, of the opposing neutral cou ditions, we shall find that the facts are of the sams

EMOTION-EMPANNEL.

maintained as a highly probable supposition, that a certain health and energy of some or all of these functions (it is difficult to draw a specific line) is essential to pleasurable feeling. We may doubt whether even mental causes can materially raise the tone of enjoyment, if they do not also raise the activity of some of these organs. Not only may a person be very happy and comfortable in the pros tration of the muscular energy, even in a sick-bol, but one way of procuring comfort is to induce a total inaction of the moving members, to allow all the available nervous power to pass to the viscera and secretions. Hence a forced relaxation of the muscles generally, by the employment of some of them, is a means of soothing the min1 under pain. Thus, the active intervention of certain small muscles-such as the corrugator of the eyebrows, the orbicular muscle of the mouth, and the depressor of the angle of the mouth-by relaxing a much greater body of muscle, is the means of setting free vital energy for behoof of the other parts of the system. This would explain the mental relief furnished by an assumed sadness of feature, and a voluntary collapse of the body generally.

general tenor, although with some seeming exceptions are raised in consequence; bat it may be tions. Joy makes a man spontaneously active, erect, animated, and energetic. It is as if a flush of power were diffused through his members; and the efforts he is then prompted to, lead to no painful exhaustion. The opening up of the features, by the evation of the eyebrows and the retraction of the mouth, indicates that the stream of energy has coursed over the face. In a still greater shock, th convulsiveness of laughter, by which respiration quickened, attests the superabundance of the Animal spirits. The body stands more erect, and every act done is done with more emphasis. Grief and depression are the opposite in every particular. The frame is languid and stooping, the features lifeless, the voice is a feeble wail; and although there is a species of convulsion attending on this condition of mind, it is a marked contrast to the other. The sob is caused by the partial paralysis of the diaphragm, which necessitates great voluntary efforts in order that breathing may proceed. The choking sensation at the throat is also a species of paralysis from loss of vital power. The convulsions arising under such circumstances are productive of an exhausting reaction, which is the case with all the energetic movements stimulated by extreme pain.

Such is undoubtedly the general fact. But why should pain stimulate, or give strength to, some special muscles, such as the corrugator of the eyebrow, and the depressor of the angle of the mouth? This has appeared a great difficulty to the ablest physiologists. It would look as if pleasure coincided with an energetic wave sent to some muscles, and pain with an energetic wave sent to others; so that the opposite conditions of mind are equally accompanied by an accession of power to some bodily member. But if we examine the matter more narrowly, it will probably turn out that the muscles that seem to be stimulated under pain, are not so in reality, but obtain the upper hand through the general relaxation of the system. Thus, take the mouth. We know the state of the mouth in languor, inaction, and sleep. We know that when we are roused in any way, the muscles of the face operate and draw the mouth asunder in a variety of forms. Pleasure corresponds with our energetic moods, pain causes a collapse towards the sleepy and exhausted condition which represents a state of departed energy. So the collapse of the body might seem an exertion of the flexor muscles, or those that bend the frame forward; but we are well aware that such collapse takes place when the system is totally lifeless. A renewed energy, as a matter of course, makes us stand erect.

This is a part of the case in reply to the objections arising from a specific expression of pain, but not the whole; and the answer to the difficulties still remaining is furnished by a fact that, if well authenticated, will probably dispose of nearly all the exceptions to the general principle now contended for. It is the organic functions, more than the muscular system, whose increased vitality coincides with pleasurable feeling, and their diminished action with pain. Muscular exercise is often highly agree able, but the pleasure of resting after exercise is still more so. Now, there can be little doubt that what happens in the state of healthy repose is this: the amount of vital force stimulated by exercise the increased energy derived from plying the lungs and heart-is now allowed to leave the active members, and to pass to the other organs-the digestion, skin, and various secreting glands-and it is their aggrandisement that is associated with the comfortable sensations of repose and sinking into sleep. Thus, the abating of muscular energy may he à cause of pleasure, provided the organic func

It would appear, then, that the stimulus of muscle is not necessarily or immediately a cause of pleasure; while the stimulus of the organic functions is so. Thus, a bracing cold quickens the activities, but is apt to cause a shock of pain, by temporarily checking the action of the skin; when the reaction arrives, this check is converted into stimulation, and the mental state is altered in like manner. A bitter tonic must be supposed to act on the same principle.

The emotions of the human mind may be classi. fied under two heads:

First The pleasures, and pains, and modes of excitement growing out of the exercise of the Senses, the Movements, and the Appetites. Sec SENSES. The five senses, commonly recognised, are partly sources of pleasure and pain, in which case they yield Emotion, and partly sources of Knowledge, by which they are related to the Intellect. There are other sensibilities not included in the five senses, but ranking with them in those particulars-as the feelings of Muscular Exercise and Repose, and the sensations of Digestion, Respiration, &c.

The second head comprises the Special Emotions not arising immediately out of Sensation, although connected therewith. These have been variously classified. The following is one mode of laying them out: 1. Feelings of Liberty and Restraint; 2. Wonder; 3. Terror; 4. Tender Affections; 5. Emotions of Self-complacency, Love of Approbation, &c.; 6. Sentiment of Power; 7. Irascibility; 8. Emotions of Action, including the interest of Pursuit or Plot; 9. Emotions of Intellect, Love of Knowledge, Consistency, and Inconsistency; 10. Fine Art Emotions, or Taste; 11. The Moral Sense.

On this subject, see Müller's Physiology, Movements due to the Passions of the Mind; Bell's Anatomy of Expression; Stewart on the Active Powers; Bain on the Emotions and the Will, &c.

EMPA'NNEL-Empanellare vel ponere in assisis et juratis-to write in a schedule or roll the names of such jurors as the sheriff returns to pass upon any trial. The judges of assize in England, before commencing their circuits, issue precepts to the sheriffs of the several counties, calling upon them to summon a sufficient number of jurors to serve upon the grand and petty juries. In compliance with this order, the sheriff prepares lists, called the Panels (q. v.) of the jury, and the persons named in the lists are thereupon summoned to attend at the assizes.

EMPECINADO EMPEROR MOTH.

EMPECINA'DO, DON JUAN MARTIN DIAZ, EL, one of the leaders of the Spanish revolution of 1820, was born in 1775. He was the son of poor parents, and entered the Spanish army in 1792. At the head of 5000 or 6000 men, he carried on a guerilla warfare against the French during the Peninsular struggle, and acquired great distinction. In 1814, he was appointed colonel in the regular army, and the king himself created him fieldmarshal; but in consequence of petitioning Ferdicand, in 1815, to reinstitute the Cortes, he was imprisoned, and afterwards banished to Valladolid. On the outbreak of the insurrection in 1820, he took a prominent part on the side of the constitutionalists, and on several occasions exhibited great courage, daring, and circumspection. After the triumph of the absolutists in 1825, he was arrested, exposed in an iron cage to the contumely of the passers-by, and finally executed on a common gibbet, amidst the ferocious yellings of a debased and liberty-hating populace.

EMPEDOCLES, a Greek philosopher of Agrigentum, in Sicily, lived about 450 B.C. So great was the estimation in which he was held by his fellow-citizens as a physician, a friend of the gods, a predicter of futurity, and a sorcerer, or conjuror of nature, that they are said to have offered him the Sovereignty. But being an enemy of tyranny, he declined it, and was the means of delivering the community from the dominion of the aristocracy, and bringing in a democracy. There was a tradition that he threw himself into the crater of Etna, in order that his sudden disappearance might beget a belief in his divine origin; this, however, can only be regarded as a mere fable, like the story told by Lucian, that Etna threw out the sandals of the vain

philosopher, and thus destroyed the popular belief in his divinity. The statement of Aristotle is, that he died at the age of 60; later writers extend the period of his life considerably further, but their testimony is not equal in weight to that of Aristotle. In E, philosophic thought is bound up with poetry and myth even in a higher degree than in Parmenides (q. v.). His general point of view is determined by the influence of the Eleatic school upon the physical theories of the Ionic philosophers. He assumed four primitive independent substances-air, water, fire, and earth, which he designates often by the mythical names Zeus, Here, &c. These four elements, as they were called, kept their place till modern chemistry dislodged them. Along with material elements, he affirmed the existence of two moving and operating powers, love and hate, or friendship and strife, the first as the uniting principle, the second as the separating. The contrast between matter and power, or force, is thus brought out more strongly by E. than by previous philosophers. The origin of the world, or cosmos, he conceived in this way: In the beginning, the elements were held in a sort of blended unity, or sphere, by the attractive force of love; when hate, previously exterior, penetrated as a repelling and separating principle. In this process of separation, which gives rise to the individual objects of nature, he seems to have assumed a series of stages, a gradual development of the perfect out of the imperfect, and a periodical return of things to the elemental state, in order to be again separated, and a new world of phenomena formed. From the fragments that we possess of his didactic poem, it is not quite clear in how far he considered fire as the substratum of strife, and water as the substratum of love, and ascribed various creations to the predominance of one or the other of these principles. Of hie opinions on special phenomena, may be mentioned his doctrine of emanations, which proceeding

from one thing enter into corresponding openings in other things. By this assumption in connection with the maxim, that like is known only by like, he thought to explain the nature of perception by the senses. He attempted to give a moral applica tion to the old doctrine of the transmigration of souls, his views of which resembled those of Pythag oras. The fragments of E. have been edited by Sturz (2 vols., Leip. 1805), Karsten (Amst. 1838) and Stein (Bonn, 1852).

E'MPEROR (Lat. imperator). The original signi fication of this, which in the modern world has become the highest title of sovereignty, can be with imperium, which in the Roman political system understood only when it is taken in conjunction had a peculiar and somewhat technical meaning. The imperium of a magistrate, be he king or consul, was the power which he possessed of bringing physical force into operation for the fulfilment of his behests. This power was conferred by a lex curiata, to act as the commander of an army. In the case of and it required this authorisation to entitle a consul the kings also, the imperium was not implied in their election, but was conferred separately, by a separate act of the national will. 'On the death of King Pompilius,' says Cicero, the populus in the comitia curiata elected Tullus Hostilius king, upon the rogation of an interrex; and the king, following the example of Pompilius, took the votes of the populus, according to their curia, on the question of his imperium.'—Republic, ii. 17. virtue of this imperium that the title imperator was Now, it was in in the modern sense, he might be a consul or a progiven to its possessor. Far from being an emperor consul; and there were, in fact, many imperatores, even after the title had been assumed as a prenomen by Julius Cæsar. It was this assumption which gradually gave to the title its modern signification. In republican times, it had followed the name, and indicated simply that its possessor was an imperator, or one possessed of the imperium; now it preceded it, and signified that he who arrogated it to himself was the emperor. In this form it appears on the coins of the successors of Julius. use as expressing the possessor of the sovereignty of After the times of the Antonines, the title grew into the Roman world, in which sense Princeps also was frequently employed. In the introduction to the Institutes, Justinian uses both, in speaking of himself, in the same paragraph. From the emperors of the West, the title passed to Charlemagne, the founder of the German empire. When the Carlovingian family expired in the German branch, the imperial crown became elective, and continued to be so till it ceased-Francis II., who in 1804 had declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria, having laid it down in 1806. In addition to the Emperor of Austria, there are now in Europe the Emperor of Russia and the Emperor of the Frenchthe latter of whom, being an elected monarch, holds a position, in one respect at least, resembling that of the old emperors of the second Western Empire, with whom it is sometimes thought that he is not unwilling to be identified.

Its

EMPEROR MOTH (Saturnia paronia minor), a moth of the same family (Bombycida) with the silk-worm moth, and of a genus to which the largest of lepidopterous insects belong. The E M is the largest British lepidopterous insect. expanse of wings is about three and a half inches. Each wing is ornamented with a large eye-like glassy and transparent spot, and such spots are exhibited by many of the genus. The Peacock Moth (S. pavonia major), is the largest European species, and attains an expanse of five inches

EMPETRACEÆ EMPORIUM.