CHAPTER XXXII.

THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN ADAMS AND THOMAS JEFFERSON.

Inauguration of John Adams-Aggressions of France upon the United States-The American Commissioners Insulted by the French Government-The Alien and Sedition Laws The United States Prepare for War with France-France Signifies her Willingness to Treat-New Commissioners appointed-Settlement of the Dispute-Hostilities at Sea-Capture of the "Insurgente" and "Vengeance"-Death of Washington-Removal of the Capital to Washington City-The Second Census-Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson-The President's Message-His First Measures-Admission of Ohio-Louisiana Purchased by the United States-War with the Barbary Powers-Burning of the" Philadelphia"-Re-election of Mr. Jefferson-Aaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel -Burr's Subsequent Career-Fulton's Steamboat-Outrages of England and France upon American Commerce-American Vessels Searched and American Seamen Impressed by England-Efforts to Settle these Questions-Affair of the "Chesapeake” and "Leopard"-The Embargo-Results of this Measure-Losses of the Eastern StatesElection of James Madison to the Presidency-Repeal of the Embargo-Retirement of Mr. Jefferson.

N the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams was inaugurated President of the United States, and Thomas Jefferson took the oath of office as Vice-President. Mr. Adams was in the sixty-second year of his age, and in the full vigor of health and intellect. He made no changes in the cabinet left by President Washington, and the policy of his administration corresponded throughout with that of his great predecessor. He came into office at a time when this policy was to be subjected to the severest test, and was to be triumphantly vindicated by the trial. Mr. Adams began his official career with the declaration of his "determination to maintain peace and inviolate faith with all nations, and neutrality and impartiality with the belligerent powers of Europe."

The relations of the United States with France had been of an unfriendly nature for some time. Jay's treaty had greatly offended the French government, and the insolent conduct of M. Adét, the French minister to the United States, had led to a suspension of diplomatic intercourse between the two republics. The French Directory now proceeded to manifest its disregard of the rights of America by ordering the seizure of all American vessels in its ports laden with English manufactured goods.

At the same time the American minister to France, Charles C. Pinckney, was treated with such studied insult that he demanded his passports and withdrew to Holland. Privateers were sent out from French ports, which captured American merchantmen and treated their crews as prisoners of war. France also exerted her influence with Spain and Holland to induce them to treat the United States with hostility because of the alleged partiality of Jay's treaty with Great Britain. All this while there was a considerable party in the United States which was anxious for the conclusion of an alliance with France, and which either could not, or would not, see the deliberate purpose of that country to treat with the American republic only as a dependent.

In May, 1797, President Adams called a special session of Congress and laid before it a statement of the relations with France. The announcement of the insults received by the American minister at the hands of the Directory and the increased aggressions upon American commerce, aroused

JOHN ADAMS.

a feeling of deep indignation throughout the country, and drew upon the partisans of France in America a considerable amount of deserved odium.

In the hope that a peaceful and honorable settlement might yet be had, John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry, the former a Federalist and the latter a Republican, were appointed special commissioners, and were ordered to proceed to Paris and unite with Mr. Pinckney in the negotiation of a treaty which should not conflict with those existing with other nations, and which should place beyond question the right of the United States to maintain their neutrality. Marshall and Gerry joined Pinckney in Paris in October, 1798, and made their business known to the French minister of foreign affairs, the famous Talleyrand. He at first refused to receive the American envoys in an official capacity, and afterwards employed unknown agents to communicate with them, in order that he might be free to disavow any engagement entered into with them. It soon transpired that the object of these secret interviews was to extort money from the commissioners. They were given to understand that if they would pay Talleyrand a certain sum of money for the use of himself and his friends, and would pledge the United States to make a loan to France, negotiations would be begun without delay. The answer of the American commissioners was well expressed in the indignant words of Pinckney: "Millions for defence, not one cent for tribute." Marshall

and Pinckney were ordered to quit France at once, but Mr. Gerry was invited to remain and negotiate a treaty. He was nevertheless unable to accomplish anything. The correspondence between the commissioners and Talleyrand's agents was published in the United States, and aroused such a storm of indignation that the French party disappeared. It never dared to make its appearance again.

About thirty thousand French exiles were residing in the United States at this time, and it was believed by the government that some of these had acted as spies for the Directory. It was known that many had abused the hospitality extended to them by seeking to induce the people of the south and west to join them in an effort to wrest Louisiana and Florida from Spain, and by endeavoring to strengthen the opposition to the efforts of the government to discharge its duty of neutrality towards the European powers. In the spring of 1798, in order to remedy this trouble, Congress passed the measures known as the "alien and sedition. acts," by the first of which the president was empowered to order out of the country "any foreigner whom he might believe to be dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States." By the sedition act it was made a crime with a very heavy penalty for any one to "write, utter, or publish" any "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against "either House of the Congress of the United States or the president of the United States, with intent to defame, or to bring them, or either of them, into contempt and disrepute." These acts met with great opposition throughout the country, and the latter especially was regarded as an effort on the part of the government to destroy the freedom of the press. The alien act was not executed, but a large number of foreigners left the country soon after its passage. Several persons were prosecuted under the sedition act for their severe criticisms of the government, and the result was invariably to increase the ranks of the Republican party, which steadfastly opposed the laws as unconstitutional and violative of the freedom of the people of the Union.

In the summer of 1798 Mr. Marshall returned from France, and his report confirmed the statements that had been made respecting the hostile intentions of the government of that country. The president submitted to Congress a statement of the disputes between the two republics, and Congress, recognizing the danger of war, began to prepare for it. It was resolved to create a navy, and the three frigates just completed were fitted for sea. The president was authorized to have built, or to purchase or hire twelve ships of war of twenty guns each. An army was ordered to be raised, and the prominent points on the coast were to be placed in a state of defence. Washington was made commander-in-chief of the

army, with the rank of Lieutenant-General. He accepted the position, and applied himself with energy to the task of preparing the country for defence. He gave a hearty support to the measures of the president, and used his great influence to secure for them a similar approval on the part of the people. In the winter of 1798-99 Congress appropriated a million of dollars to defray the expense of the military preparations, and authorized the construction of six ships of war of seventy-four guns each, and six sloops of war of eighteen guns each.

The energy and enthusiasm with which the Americans prepared for war opened the eyes of Talleyrand. He had not supposed they would fight, and now that he found they would, he was not willing to add to the difficulties of France by engaging in a new war. He therefore signified in an informal manner to Mr. Van Murray, the United States minister in Holland, that the French government was willing to renew diplomatic intercourse with the United States. Mr. Adams, upon being informed of this, resolved to make one more effort to secure a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. He sent Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice of the United States, William R. Davie, and William Van Murray, minister to Holland, as commissioners to treat with the French republic for a settlement of all differences between the two countries. In taking this step he greatly offended many of the leaders of his party, who insisted that overtures for peace should come from France. The most rational and probable solution of Mr. Adams' course, in the absence of direct proof, says the Hon. A. H. Stephens, "is that he acted under the urgent private advice of Washington. Be that as it may, it proved to be one of the wisest and most beneficent deeds of his life." The commissioners were ordered by the president not to enter France unless they were assured that they would be received in a "manner befitting the commissioners of an independent nation."

Upon reaching Paris the commissioners found that a great change had taken place in the affairs of France. A revolution had unseated the Directory, and Napoleon Bonaparte was at the head of the government as first consul. Commissioners were appointed to meet the American envoys, and negotiations were begun and carried forward with such success that on the 30th of November, 1800, a treaty of peace was signed between the United States and France.

In the meantime, though war was not actually declared, hostilities had begun. More than three hundred merchant vessels were licensed to carry arms for their defence. On the 9th of February, 1799, the American frigate "Constellation" captured the French frigate "L'Insurgente," of about equal force, after a severe engagement of an hour and a quarter,