will disappear; the people do not yet | what it was with what it is now. Of understand the full value of education, the generation of men born in the first

and second decades of the century, scarcely any were able to read a paper, a few only were able to sign their names. During the war of 1870-71 it was rare to find in the country a man of mature age able to read the papers. In a village I know well, twenty-five

but they will learn by degrees, and the law will gradually pass into the habits of the people. Then it is not quite true that the establishment of free education has diminished the salaries of the teachers; this is certainly the case in thickly populated districts, but it has increased the salaries in the thinly pop-years ago only four persons subscribed ulated parishes. It would have been better to have increased the number of assistant teachers instead of multiplying the number of schools beyond all

measure.

to a local newspaper, now fifteen subscribe to local and Parisian papers; besides which there are two newspaper depôts for Parisian papers, at which twenty-five are sold daily, and it must On the other hand, one must not be remembered that these papers pass overlook the fact that the multiplica- from hand to hand. Forty years ago tion of schools and the establishment of most teachers were men who had failed free education deprive the parents of in other employments and by no means every pretext for not sending their chil-qualified to be teachers; and every dren to school. The education given parish had not its own teacher. The in these schools is very good, the teach-school was a damp, dark room, in comers being all trained and certificated.parison with which the present schools The subjects taught are French, arith- appear almost palaces. Another fact metic and mensuration, history and is that the children read more, the geography (general, and that of France school library is at their disposal and in particular), the principles of morals, that of their parents. Many of these instruction civique, which embraces libraries were founded in 1867, but up knowledge necessary to every citizen to 1877 they were not much taken adconcerning his duties and rights, the vantage of, moreover the books they administration of the parish, that of contained were given by the ministry the department, and then of the State, of public instruction of the Second the use and election of deputies, etc., | Empire. A set of books could not and all relating to the manner in which have been more badly chosen. There the country is governed; the rudiments were, it is true, some books on agriof physical and natural sciences, agri- culture, but the choice of most was culture (theoretical and practical), dictated by a dynastic interest, "Le drawing, and elementary music. Girls Livre d'or de la famille Bonaparte," are taught needlework instead of agri-"Une Vie de Napoleon," "Instruction culture. Religion finds no place in the pastorale de Mgr. l'Evêque d'Amiens." teaching of the schools; parents who Some others were too childish and silly wish their children to receive religious for adults. Another gift of books was instruction send them to the classes received in 1883 from the ministry; held by the priest in the church. Al- these are well chosen in general but though the instruction to be obtained is not numerous enough. In a certain very good, yet the class of agricultural village, out of about ninety books laborers is certainly not more intelli- scarcely fifty are in general demand at gent than in England, because after present, and these numbers gradually they leave school they have no means diminish because people and parents of improvement, nothing being done, cannot read the same books over and as I have shown, to interest or amuse over again. The libraries ought to be them. better supplied; perhaps French peasA better way of judging of the prog-ants would not read as much as English ress of education since the establish- people of the same class, but it is a ment of the Republic, is to compare matter of great importance that having

received an education as good as, if race; and in the farmer's opinion they

rise in the social scale by having the same ideas as their landlords. Then both landlord and farmer are vexed to

not superior to, that given in English village schools, they should be allowed to give up reading for want of books. III. Political Opinions and Educa- see that the mass of the population no tion. What are the political opinions | longer look up to them as superior beof the country people, and are they ings; the spirit of equality which has founded on a solid basis? In the first spread so much during the twenty place, all the workmen are Republi- years of the Republic is very distastecans. If they were asked why, they ful to them. Formerly the laborers could not give very appropriate an- submitted to many things from the swers; they say that an empire with a "master;" it would have been considNapoleon is henceforth impossible, the ered a disgrace for him to have been name of Napoleon is associated with turned out of a large farm; he would Sedan. Very few are still Bonapart-have been considered a seditious perists. The latter associate the Empire with high wages, and they believe that the emperor was betrayed-vendu, as they say — and they will listen to no reason on the subject; but this class is disappearing rapidly. On the other hand, a royauté is inseparable in the mind of a Frenchman from le gouvernement des curés, and this is quite sufficient to prevent the idea of a monarchy from being popular.

very backward in political education. When there is a bad harvest they still think it is in some way the fault of the government.

son, and it would have been difficult for him to find work on another farm. But now the laborer assumes an air of independence, and the farmer must be careful not to assume an air of authority towards him. But the spirit of equality is not the only cause of this change. The farmers are no longer as prosperous and well off as they were twenty years ago. The laborers know this, and in the country riches are The country laborers also are Repub-thought a great deal of. However, it licans, and for the same reasons; but, is certain that French countrymen are as a rule, they are moderate, their minds are not overheated by discussions in the workshops and the reading of advanced papers. Twenty years ago scarcely any of the small landown- In 1888 the harvests failed throughers were Republicans; they had heard out France; I frequently heard the of the Rouges and the partageux of countrymen say, "Oh, I am not sur1848; they knew that Napoleon was prised with such a government." The the saviour of civilization, the man women went further, saying that God of order. Republican in their mind would not favor a Republic. Farmers, meant partageux or canaille, people whom one would have supposed more who had nothing to lose by a revolu- enlightened, made similar remarks. tion, whereas they themselves had Others complained that the governmuch to lose. They used to say: "Allment did not do enough for agriculture. Republicans are not rascals, but all Others said what they needed was un rascals are sure to be Republicans;" gouvernement d'argent. If a general so in their minds Republic and insecurity of property were inseparable. With the new generation this false idea is gradually disappearing. The only people who have not joined the party of the Republic are the large farmers; they wish to please their landlords, who are in most cases the squires of the parish, and have still the feudal prejudices of their ancestors, and believe they belong to a superior

election had taken place then the consequences might have been serious. At the time of the Boulangist agitation I heard a horse dealer complain that the times were hard, but that he knew of a remedy. "What we want," said he, with the air of a man who has a secret to communicate, "is a coup d'état; oui, un bon coup d'état et les affaires iront bien." However, the new generation are better educated;

they no longer believe that if the rain | man who related this fact to me, "they falls when not needed it is the fault of will not again return the men who the government; they no longer be- have overburdened them with taxes." lieve that a failure of the harvest is "You are mistaken," he said, "they caused by the form of government, but have but a dim idea of the cause of the they still believe, if they find it difficult increased taxes; they would vote again to sell their cattle, or if they only fetch for the very men who had caused it." low prices and if trade is languishing, It will be seen that these people are that it is the fault of the government. imperfectly acquainted with the princiThat Frenchmen at large still believe ples of causation, some of them are that the government can make trade terribly superstitious, and political subad or good, can protect trade, is shown perstition will not be the first to be by the protectionist ideas still pervad- uprooted. Nevertheless it would not ing the country; the word protection be fair to deny that the education of is sufficient argument; indeed, most Frenchmen progresses; it progresses Frenchmen believe in a State provi- surely but slowly, the new generation dence that can do everything. "The is better educated and reads the papers. government ought to do this or that for I know from experience that for one us," is a phrase frequently heard from paper circulated in a parish twenty workmen. I need hardly point out years ago now there are twenty. It is that this belief implies that the State true that many of the halfpenny papers can create something out of nothing. cannot be said to enlighten their readNobody thinks that if the State does ers, still there must always be a beginsomething somebody else must pay. ning in everything. But this political As regards the affairs of the parish, education and their education in genthe political education is still worse. eral is not sufficient to prevent them The affairs are managed by a mayor from acting by impulse de s'emballer, and a municipal council; they decide as they say; many serious people beall affairs relating to the domestic econ-lieve that a victorious general would omy of the parish, etc., but they are be made emperor. The armed nation under the control of the prefect of the would extend his power. He has department, who can annul, if neces-been able to defeat the enemy, he must sary, any of their measures. The be able to govern us," would be the mayors and municipal councillors, in unconscious or conscious reason. many cases, show a rare deficiency of IV. Religion. Catholicism is the practical sense. As before stated, many religion of the majority of Frenchmen, schools have been built in hamlets though many are only nominal Cathowhere they were not necessary, merely lics. In the first place, old men, women, because the mayor and the majority of and girls go regularly to church, and the council belonged to that hamlet; also, in most cases, to confession. by vanity they wished to endow their These religious practices are observed village with a school, and, further, from custom, which has been handed their names would be handed down down for many generations. Many do associated with the building of the honestly and sincerely believe what schools. Then, in other cases, schools the priest teaches them. Their answer are enlarged and repaired. "Eh," they to unbelievers is, "We are something say, "we have done nearly as much more than animals, and believe that for our parish as they have for their everything that happens is caused by hamlet, and we shall not lose any op- the will of God." When people die portunity of embellishing it while we their relatives, when they can afford it, are in power; "and in this way they have masses said once a week for the play with the finances of their fellow-repose of their souls for at least a year. parishioners; many have had their At the end of the year they have une taxes doubled through this mismanage- messe de bout de l'an, at which all the ment. "Surely," I said to the gentle-family is present.

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These and all other Catholic customs | dée, people are more deeply attached relating to the dead are strictly ob- to Catholicism than in the other parts served. Each newly built house is of France. The Church is powerfully blessed by the priest; masses are said supported by noble families and by to prevent the cattle from having the rich families of the middle class, as plague. Crosses blessed on Roga- much sometimes from political as from tion" days are planted in the fields, religious motives. and processions are made through the A fact of much significance is that, fields in order to draw the blessing of wherever I have been, I have never God on the harvest. Then there is no heard, on inquiring, of a priest having department in France which has not no "paid" masses to say. In the its pilgrimages and "pardons." These smaller villages of Normandy the priest details show that Catholicism is still has often more masses than he can say, deeply rooted in the minds of the as there it is also the custom to have French peasantry. When, however, masses said for invalids. In this part. one has excepted the old men and of France the priests are highly rewomen and children, one finds that the spected, they are called les messieurs: rest of the community profess little or prêtres. But as a rule the new generano religion. They rarely go to church tion of Frenchmen object to what they except at Christmas, Easter, the As- regard as the absurd dogmas and supersumption of the Holy Virgin, and All stitious practices of the Church of Saints Day, and if they do go it is to Rome. They have reached a crisismeet their friends rather than from analogous to the crisis reached by the religious motives. Of course these men Teutonic race in the sixteenth cennever go to confession. Yet they are tury; but their minds are more logical not hostile to the priest. What he says than the Teutonic minds, they follow and does is a matter of indifference a principle to its extremes, whereas to them. But a curious fact is that the English mind, admirably practical, these very men would object to their prefers middle terms and compromises, daughters being married before the so I doubt if Protestantism as it is unmayor only; not that they are quite derstood in England ever thrives in sure it would be wrong not to be mar- France. The Protestants are only a ried by the priest, but it is an old cus-small proportion of the population; tom practised by all. The same men they are mostly Calvinists and are genconfess and receive extreme unction erally more cultivated; but few are when they are on their death-beds. found in the country districts. The Again, they are not sure that it is of form of belief which is gaining most any good, but, after all, it can do them ground in France is Unitarianism, no harm; and, as it is the only remedy which is professed already by many of they have, they may as well try it. the intellectual élite of the French naThere are no entirely civil marriages or tion. As I have shown, bigotry or burials in the country, even in indiffer- fanaticism in religious matters is not a ent families. The generation which characteristic of Frenchmen; carelesshas grown up under the Republic is ness and indifference are their chief more markedly indifferent, yet still faults. In most cases, whether they they are not markedly hostile. They have received a religious training or simply take no account of the priest, not; even if baptized, educated, and that is all. Of course there are some confirmed in the Catholic faith; when exceptions, but the average Frenchman they arrive at man's estate and reason is not much of a fanatic either way. and think for themselves, their minds. At the same time I must qualify these recoil from belief in Catholicism; in observations by saying that some re-most cases they become merely indifgions are far more Catholic than others. ferent, rarely hostile; in the few cases. In the north of France, Flandre, Ar- where they continue to reason and intois, Picardie, Normandie, and in Ven-terest themselves on religious matters,

they more often embrace Unitarianism | him a Chinese wife, he would be than any other reformed religion.

Conclusion. In conclusion I have little to say. I do not, perhaps, know enough of the English laborer to make comparisons between him and the French laborer, so that I could not pronounce with authority on the question of whether his condition is better or worse than that of the latter. But what I have said on the French rustic, as it is my own experience and information gained at first hand, will enable my readers who presumably know in like manner the English side of the question to draw their own conclusions on the subject.

From The National Review.
SOME NOTES ON TIBET.

stopped at the border and made to send the woman back. The Chinese may marry Tibetan women, but of the progeny of such mixed marriages, though the boys are called Chinese, the girls are obliged to adopt their mother's nationality.

With regard to the power exercised by the mandarins in Tibet, in the large commercial town of Ke-gu, O-gan-ze, and other towns and villages, I found they only ruled over the Chinese residents. The Tibetans always have a local chief of their own, who carries. out Tibetan law and justice. Even the Chinese military chief at Ke-gu only defends the Chinese trade interests, grauting little or no protection to the Tibetan caravans which carry on the tea thence to Lhassa; and at the capital the emperor of China's represenTHE exact status of the relationship tative, or ambassador as he really is,. between China and Tibet is so vaguely administers justice to the Chinese unknown, and the Chinese, for their own der his protection and cannot interfere aggrandizement, make such wrong rep- with the natives. The Tibetans have resentations, that a few observations their own laws, courts of justice, and taken during my late journey through native officials in authority. The ChiTibet, dressed as a native, and when nese are, however, allowed to keep. living amongst the cosmopolitan inhab- here a small armed force, under the itants of the border towns, may be of plea that it is necessary to protect the interest. To begin with a curious con- royal lama, his sacred person being tradiction: the Chinese tell one that greatly valued by the emperor of China. the whole of Tibet is subject to their As to customs and taxes, we find the rule; the lamas of Lhassa, on the custom dues collected in Amdo and other hand, disclaim Chinese rule alto- Kham alone swell the revenues of the gether. The eastern Tibetan provinces Chinese government. In the prov of Amdo and Kham alone are, so both inces of U and Tsang the customs are chiefs and lamas of importance told levied by Tibetans at the various borme, subject to the imperial government der towns, and are paid over to the of China. The grand lama, or his rep-lama chiefs of these two provinces. resentative, the dever-shu, rules over The taxes collected in Kham are taken the central and sacred province of U (Tibet proper), and the lama chief residing at Shega-tze governs the province of Tsang. A short residence in Amdo and Kham showed me that even in these provinces the Chinese rule is more or less nominal. The strongest proof is that no Chinese woman is allowed to penetrate them. So afraid, indeed, are the Tibetans of the Chinese peopling Tibet, that should a mandarin, invested with some official appointment in Tibet, attempt to bring with

to the Chinese town Ta-chien-lu, on the Si-chuen border. In other eastern districts subject to Chinese taxation, the Tibetan chief of a hundred collects them in kind from his people, and takes them to a district chief, who sells them for silver. Once a year a mandarin from Si-ning (China) repairs to Ke-gu, where this silver is then handed over to him to pay to the imperial government.

The question naturally occurs, "Why do the Tibetans allow customs and