FUTTYPUR-FYZABAD.

the unparalleled sufferings of the hapless fugitives | receive a dividend, deducting interest at 5 per cent. -men, women, and children.

FUTTYPU'R, a town in the district of Saugor and Nerbudda, and sub-presidency of the Northwest Provinces, stands on the Unjon, a tributary of the Nerbudda, about 20 miles from the point of junction, being in lat. 22° 38′ N., and long. 78° 38' E. It is a place of some importance, as being the residence of three Gond rajahs.

FUTURE DEBT is a debt wherein the obligation to pay and the time for payment is fixed and certain, but the day for performance has not arrived. Of such a debt, it was said in the civil law dies cedit etsi nondum venerit; and it was distinguished from a contingent debt, i. e., a debt payable on the performance of a condition which was uncertain, in which it was said dies nec cedit nec venit. Thus, an obligation to pay six months hence is a future debt; an obligation to pay if my ship returns from Spain,' is contingent. In the event of the death or bankruptcy of a person having large commercial transactions, it is often of great importance that the right of the holders of such securities should be accurately fixed. In Rome, on the death or bankruptcy of a citizen, a creditor holding a claim for a future debt was entitled to payment, deducting a percentage proportionate to the date at which his debt was payable; but a contingent creditor only received a security for payment in case his debt should become payable. This general principle has been introduced into the legal systems of modern states. In Holland and in France, the rights of creditors having claims not immediately payable are based upon the rule of the civil law. In England, a future debt, in order to found a valid claim, must be in writing, but it may be constituted by bond, bill, or note or other security. By common law, such a claim could not be enforced until the actual time for payment has arrived; and formerly, in case of bankruptcy, a creditor on a debt of this kind was not allowed to insist in his claim. At the same time, the bankrupt's discharge was held not to release him from a debt which had not been admitted to claim in the process; and hence debtors were sometimes incarcerated for years on debts which they were wholly unable to discharge. See IMPRISONMENT FOR DEBT. This state of things was productive of manifest injustice on both debtor and creditor; on the latter, by excluding him from insisting in his claim at a time when he might have obtained a partial payment; on the former, by punishing him for his default when he was deprived of the means of making any return. The subject was frequently discussed in parliament before a remedy was applied. At last, by 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, 8. 51, it was enacted that, in cases of bankruptcy, where a debt was not immediately payable, the creditor should be entitled to prove his debt, and

for the period which was to elapse before the date 56, debts payable on a contingency might be valued, when the debt was payable in due course. By s. and a dividend paid on the estimated value. Similar provisions were inserted in the 12 and 13 Vict. c. 24 and 25 Vict. c. 134, s. 153, it is enacted that a 196, ss. 172 and 177. By the last bankruptcy act, person having a claim for unliquidated damages, which are of the nature of a future debt, may have his claim assessed by a jury either in the court of equity, or before a common-law judge, or, in case of agreement between the parties, by the court without a jury.

By the common law of Scotland, the rule of the civil law, as to the rights of creditors having a future claim, has always been recognised. In the event of bankruptcy, creditors in both future and contingent debts are allowed to rank, but the latter only to the extent of receiving a security until the condition is purified. But by 19 and 20 Vict. c. 79, s. 53, which is now the ruling statute as to bankruptcy in Scotland, contingent creditors may have their debts valued, and may vote in the Sequestration (q. v.), and draw dividends proportionate to the valuation. It is also enacted, s. 14, that all creditors whose debts are not contingent may concur in the petition for bankruptcy. But the Scotch law affords to future debtors a further privilege, unknown to the system of the sister-country-viz., that of arrestment in security, whereby a creditor having a future claim is enabled, in case his debtor seem to be wilfully diminishing his means of discharging his debt, to attach the goods of the debtor as a security for the payment of his debt. See ARRESTMENT.

and north-east from the Sound of Bute, in the south FYNE, LOCH, an arm of the sea running north of Argyleshire, to beyond Inverary, in the north, and is bounded by the district of Cowal on the E., and by those of Argyle, Knapdale, and part of Cantire on the W. It is 43 miles long, 2 to 10 miles broad, and 40 to 70 fathoms deep. Its shores are deeply rise higher and are wooded near Inverary. On the indented, and bordered by low bare hills, which the Crinan Canal. Loch F. is celebrated for its west side, it sends off a small branch leading to herrings.

FYZABA'D, a rapidly decaying city of Oude, stands on the right bank of the Ghogra, here a navigable river, in lat. 26° 47′ N., and long. 82° 10′ E. Originally an appendage, as it were, of Ayodha or Oude, the ancient capital from which the country took its name, F. became, in 1730, itself the seat of government. But in 1775, immediately after the annexation of part of Rohilcund (see FUTEHGUNGE), it was supplanted by Lucknow, which lay about 90 miles to the west, in the direction of the newly acquired territory.

565

G

THE seventh letter in the Roman alphabet, and in the modern alphabets derived from it. For the history of the character, see ALPHABET and letter C. The original and proper sound of G (corresponding to Gr. 2) is that heard in gun, give, glad. But the same natural process which turned the k-sound of c before e and i into that of s (see C), produced a similar change on G, so that before e and it came to be pronounced by the Latins like dzh. The sibilation of the letter g before i followed by a vowel, had begun as early as the 4th c. A. D., as is evident from the misspelling in inscriptions; in the case of c, the change can be detected much earlier. From the Latin, the dzh-sound of g passed into the Romanic tongues, and also into English. As a general rule in English, in words derived from the classical and Romanic languages, g has the hissing sound before e, i, and y; it has its natural sound in all words before a, o, and u; and it retains it in Teutonic words even before e and i.

G, in its proper power, belongs to the order of gutturals, or c, g, ch, gh; of the two bare' gutturais, is the flat (or medial), and k the sharp; while gh and ch are the corresponding Aspirates (q.v.).

The following are some of the interchanges between g and other letters: Lat. ager, Gr. agros, Eng. acre, Ger. acker; Gr. triakonta, Lat. triginta; Gr. gonu, Lat. genu, Eng. knee; Lat. (g)nosco, Gr. gignosco, Eng. know; Lat. genus, Eng. kin; Gr. chen, Ger. gans, Eng. goose and gander; Lat, hesternus, Ger. gestern, Eng. yester (day); Lat. germanus, Span. hermano. The convertibility of g and y is seen in the old English participles in y, as yclad, corresponding to Sax. and Ger. ge-; in Ger. gelb, Eng. yellow; Ger. tag, Eng. day; Ger. mag, Eng. may; yate for gate; yard for garden, Lat. hortus. In Italian, gi is substituted for j, as Giulio for Julius; and in French, which has no w, that letter is represented by gu, as guerre, guarder, for Eng. war, ward or guard. G has been frequently dropt out, as Lat. nosco for gnosco; Eng. enough, compared with Ger. genug; agone, with ge-gangen; Lat. magister, Fr. maistre or maître, Eng. master. May, Lat. Maius, contracted from Magius, is from a root mag, or (Sans.) mah, to grow: so that May is just the season of growth.

Nagy Karoly in 1811, studied at the college of Buda, and at the university of Pesth, and entered soon afterwards the administrative career, being attached to the Hungarian Council of Lieutenancy. G. began writing early, and proved equally successful when gossiping in the columns of Kossuth's famous Pesti Hirlap, and when engaged in translating a masterpiece of Cervantes, filling the periodicals with tales and novels, or furnishing original works for the National Theatre. The sketches of countrylife as it was, and as it still continues on the vast plains of Hungary, are nowhere to be found more vividly and more truly exhibited than in G.'s comedies and tales. The following are some of G.'s original compositions: Szirmay Ilona, a novel in 2 vols. (Pesth, 1836); Peleskei Notarius (The Notary of Peleske, Pesth, 1838), a comedy in four acts-might be called the Hungarian comedy par excellence; Szvatopluk, a tragedy in five acts. Tales: Pusztai Kaland (An Adventure on the Hungarian Prairies); Tengeri Kaland az Alfoeldoen (Seafaring Adventures in Lower Hungary); Hortobágyi éjszaka (A Night on the Heath of Hortobágy). During the sojourn of the Hungarian Diet at Debreczin (1849), G. was editor of a journal combating extreme radical views.

GA'BBRO, the name given by Italian geologists to a variety of greenstone composed of felspar and diallage. It is equivalent to euphotide or diallage rock.

GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER, a distinguished German philologist, was born at Altenburg, 13th October 1807, and educated at the universities of Leipsic and Göttingen. In 1833, he published his Eléments de la Grammaire Mandschoue, a new grammar, in which the entire idiomatic character of that language was developed in concise rules. He had, moreover, a share in the establishment of a journal devoted to Oriental science (Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes), and contributed to it some interesting papers on the Mongolian language. Along with J. Löbe, he also published a critical edition of the Gothic translation of the Bible by Ulfilas, with a Latin translation, and with a Gothic glossary and grammar appended (Leipsic, 1843-1846). G. was also the first philologist in Germany who undertook a scientific treatment of the dialects of the Finnish-Tartar stem. Besides a Syrjan grammar (Grundzüge der SyrjänG, in Music, is the fifth sound of the natural ischen Grammatik, Altenburg, 1841), he furnished diatonic scale of C, and the eighth sound of the contributions to periodicals on the Mordvinian and chromatic scale. It stands in proportion to C as 2 Samoyed languages. He has since published some to 3; is a perfect fifth above C, and the second contributions to the science of language (Beiträge harmonic arising from C as a fundamental note. zur Sprachenkunde). The first three parts were In the solmisation of Guido Aretinus, the note G issued in 1852, and the first volume of a collection was called Sol, Re, or Ut, according as the hexa- of his Philological Fragments (Sprachwissenschaf chord began with C, F, or G. G major as a key liche Fragmente) appeared in 1859, and a Dissertahas one sharp at its signature, viz., F sharp. Gtion on the Passive Voice (Ueber das Passivum, Eine minor has two flats at its signature, viz., B flat and Sprachvergleichende Abhandlung) in 1860.

E flat.

GAAL, JOZSEF, a Hungarian author, was born at

566

GABELLE, a French word, derived from the German Gabe, gift or tribute, and originally used in

GABION-GABRIEL.

general way to designate every kind of indirect tax, but more especially the tax upon salt. This impost, first established in 1286, in the reign of Philippe IV., was meant to be only temporary, but was declared perpetual by Charles V. It varied in the different provinces. Those that were most heavily taxed were called pays de grande gabelle, and those that were least heavily taxed, pays de petite gabelle. It was unpopular from the very first, and the attempt to collect it occasioned freIt was finally suppressed in quent disturbances. 1789. The name gabelous is, however, still given by the common people in France to tax-gatherers.

GABION (Ital. gabbia, related to Lat. cavea, hollow), a hollow cylinder of basket-work, employed field or temporary fortification, and varying in size from a diameter of 20 inches to 6 feet, with a height of from 2 feet 9 inches to 6 feet. In constructing it, stout straight stakes are placed upright in the ground in a circle of the required diameter, and are then wattled together with osiers or green The appatwigs, as in the formation of baskets. ratus being raised, when completed, from the ground, the ends are fastened, and the gabion is ready to be rolled to any place where it is desirable to form a breast-work against the Placed on end, and enemy. filled with earth, a single row of gabions is proof, except at the points of junction, against musketry fire, and by increasing the number of rows, any degree The gabion has of security can be obtained. the advantage of being highly portable, from its shape, while with its aid a parapet can be formed with far less earth, and therefore in less time, than in cases when allowance has to be made for the slopes on both sides, which are necessarily present The sap-roller consists in ordinary earthen walls. of two concentric gabions, one 4 feet, the other In feet 8 inches in diameter, with the space between them wedged full of pickets of hard wood. sapping (see MINES), these serve as substitutes for mantlets.

Gabion.

Stuffed gabions are gabions rammed full of broken branches and small wood; being light in weight, they are rolled before soldiers in the trenches, and afford some, though not a very efficient, protection against musketry fire.

Gabionnade is a line of gabions thrown up by troops as a defence, after being driven back from other more solid positions. In carrying a welldefended fortress, gabionnade after gabionnade has sometimes to be stormed before the besieged can be compelled to surrender.

GABLE, the triangular part of an exterior wall of a building between the top of the side-walls and the slopes of the roof. The whole wall of which the gable forms the top is called a gable-end; partywalls, or the walls which separate two contiguous houses, and which belong equally to both houses, are called in Scotland 'mutual gables.'

The gable is one of the most common and characteristic features of Gothic architecture. The end walls of classic buildings had Pediments (q. v.), which followed the slope of the roofs, but these were always low in pitch. In medieval architecture, gables of every angle are used with the utmost freedom, and when covered with the moulded and crocketed copes of the richer periods of the style, give great variety and beauty of outline.

Gablets, or small gables, are used in great profusion in the more decorative parts of Gothic architecture, such as canopies, pinnacles, &c., where

they are introduced in endless variety along with
The towns of the middle ages had almost all the
tracery, crockets, and other enrichments.
gables of the houses towards the streets, producing
great diversity and picturesqueness of effect, as may
still be seen in many towns which have been little
modernised. The towns of Belgium and Germany
especially still retain this medieval arrangement.
In the later Gothic and the Renaissance periods,
the simple outline of the gable became stepped
and broken in the most fantastic manner.
CORBIE STEPS.

See

In Scottish law, a mutual gable or party-wall, though partly built on the adjoining property, belongs to the builder, and he can prevent his neighbour from availing himself of it for the support of his house, until he has paid half the expense of building it. For the law of England on this subject,

see PARTY-WALL.

GABOO'N RIVER, THE, takes its rise in the Crystal Mountains, a chain in Western Africa, running almost directly east and west, parallel to, and about 80 or 100 miles distant from, the coast. Flowing first in the direction of north to south, it afterwards curves toward the north, and empties itself into the Atlantic in lat. about 0° 30′ N., and long. 9° 10' E. Its mouth forms a bay of some 10 or 12 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 7 to 15 miles. The total length of the river is said to be about 120 miles. The G. is deep and sluggish, the mass of its waters being tidal; 60 miles from its mouth the tide rises to a height of from seven to nine feet. The climate is unhealthy; but the profits of the trade in ivory, which is obtained abundantly in the territories through which the river flows, induced a French colony to settle and build a fort at the mouth of the river in 1842 or 1843. In the same The Gaboon country, year, an American mission, which still continues in active operation, was established at Baraka, about eight miles up the river. besides ivory-of which, when the home demand is duces ibar-wood, a dye-wood from which a darkbrisk, it yields about 80,000 pounds annually—proquality. The banks of the river, from its source red dye is obtained, ebony, and copal of inferior to the ocean, are occupied by about a dozen tribes, chief of which is the Mpongeve, who hold its mouth. This division of territory renders the the first owners in the interior not being allowed to ivory much more costly than it otherwise would be, take it direct to the white trader at the coast, but compelled to transmit it through the hands of the intervening tribes, each of whom makes a profit.

GABRIEL (Heb. the man or mighty one of God) is, in the Jewish angelology, one of the seven archangels. He appears in the book of Daniel as the In the New Testament, he interpreter of the prophet's vision (chap. viii.), and announces the future appearance of the Messiah (chap. ix. 21-27). reveals to Zacharias the birth of John the Baptist (Luke, i. 11), and to the Virgin Mary the birth of The Talhe is the angel of death for the people of Israel, Christ (Luke, i. 26). According to the Rabbins, whose souls are intrusted to his care. When Nebuchadnezzar besieged mud describes him as the prince of fire, and as the spirit who presides over the thunder and the ripening of fruits. Jerusalem, G. is believed to have entered the Temple, G. has also the reputation by command of Jehovah, before the Assyrian soldiery, and burned it, thereby frustrating their among the Rabbins of being a most distinguished impious intentions. linguist, having taught Joseph the 70 languages spoken at Babel, and being, in addition, the only angel who could speak Chaldee and Syriac. The

567

GACHARD-GAELIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

Mohammedans hold G. in even greater reverence than the Jews, and regard him as the chief of the four most favoured angels who form the council of God; he is called the spirit of truth, and is believed to have dictated the Koran to Mohammed.

custom dues and tolls. It is an important entrepôt for manufactures and foreign goods from Tripoli to the interior, and for exports of ivory, bees-wax, hides, ostrich-feathers, gold, &c., from the interior to Tripoli. Previous to 1856, about 500 slaves, principally females, were annually imported at G.; but in that year a decree was issued by the sultan, peremptorily forbidding the traffic, which accordingly has been completely abolished. Pop. 4000, who are devoted Mohammedans.

GAD-FLY. See BoT and TABANUS.

GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER, principal archivist of Belgium, was born in France about the year 1800. He was originally a compositor; but having removed to Belgium, he took part in the revolution of 1830, and was naturalised in 1831. In the same year he was appointed to the useful and honourable post which he still retains (1862). G. has spent much time in GA'DIDÆ, an important family of malacopterous examining the documents relating to Belgian history, fishes, having a moderately elongated body covered which are to be found in the national archives and with small soft scales, the head naked, the fins all in those of Spain. His principal writings are, Ana- soft and destitute of spines, the ventral fins placed lectes Belgiques (1830); Documents Politiques et Diplo- under the throat and pointed, one dorsal fin or more, matiques sur la Révolution Belge de 1790 (1834); the air-bladder large. Some of the species are small, Mémoires sur les Bollandistes et leurs Travaux depuis but others attain a large size. To this family belong 1773 jusqu'en 1789 (1847); Correspondance de Guil- the Cod, Ling, Hake, Dorse, Haddock, Whiting, laume le Taciturne (1847-1851); Correspondance de Coal-fish, Burbot, &c. The species are widely distri Philippe II., sur les Affaires des Pays-Bas (1848-buted. Most of them are marine. A few, as the 1851); Correspondance du Duc d'Albe sur l'Invasion Burbot, are fresh-water fishes. The more important du Comte Louis de Nassau en Frise (1850); Retraite species are separately noticed. et Mort de Charles-Quint (1854), and Relation des Troubles de Gand sous Charles-Quint (1856). Prescott, the American historian, speaks highly of G., and of the importance of his labours in regard to the history and character of the Emperor Charles V. See Prescott's edition of Robertson's History of Charles V. (Boston, 1857). Recently (1859), G. published a series of historical documents bearing unfavourably upon the characters of Counts Egmont and Horn, which had the effect of stopping proceedings in regard to the erection of a national monument to these two noblemen.

GAD, the first-born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, was the seventh son of Jacob. His name is differently explained. The tribe of Gad numbered in the wilderness of Sinai more than 40,000 fighting-men. Nomadic by nature, and possessing large herds of cattle, they preferred to remain on the east side of Jordan, and were reluctantly allowed to do so by Joshua, on condition of assisting their countrymen in the conquest and subjugation of Canaan. Their territory lay to the north of that of Reuben, and comprised the mountainous district known as Gilead, through which flowed the brook Jabbok, touching the Sea of Galilee at its northern extremity, and reaching as far east as Rabbath-Ammon. The men of Gad-if we may judge from the eleven warriors who joined David in his extremity-were a race of stalwart heroes; 'men of might, and men of war fit for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, whose faces were like the faces of lions, and were as swift as the roes upon the mountains' (1 Chron. xii. 8). Jephthah the Gileadite, Barzillai, Elijah the Tishbite, and Gad the seer,' were also in all probability members of this tribe.

GA'DWALL (Anas strepera, or Chauliodus strepera), a species of duck, not quite so large as the mallard, a rare visitant of Britain, but abundant in many parts of the continent of Europe, and equally in the north of Africa. Being a bird of passage, it is so in Asia and in North America. It is also found a native both of arctic and of tropical regions. The

G. breeds in marshes, and lays from seven to nine eggs. Except at the breeding season, it is usually seen in small flocks, and an individual is sometimes to be found in a flock of other ducks. Its voice is loud and harsh. It is much esteemed for the table, and is common in the London market, being imported chiefly from Holland.

GADA'MES, or more accurately GHADAMES (the Cydamus of the Romans), the name of an oasis GEA, or GE, according to the Greek mythology, and town of Africa, the centre of divergent routes the goddess of the earth, appears in Hesiod as the to Tunis, Tripoli, Ghat, and Tidikelt, is situated on first-born of Chaos, and the mother of Uranus, the northern border of the Sahara, in lat. 30° 9' N., Pontus, and many other gods and titans. As the long. 9° 17' E., on the south-western boundary of vapours which were supposed to produce divine the pashalic of Tripoli, and 310 miles south-west of inspiration rose from the earth, it was natural that the town of that name. It contains six mosques G. should be regarded as an oracular divinity; and, and seven schools; but the education offered to the in fact, the oracles at Delphi and Olympia were young is limited to the reading of the Koran and believed to have belonged to her in the earlier ages a little Arabic writing. The gardens of G. grow of their history. Her worship extended over all dates, barley, wheat, millet, &c., and are watered Greece, and she had temples or altars in most of by the hot spring (89° Fah.), from which the town the important cities. At Rome, G. was worshipped had its origin. The climate is dry and healthy, under the name of Tellus. though very hot in summer. The revenue of t G., estimated at 10,000 mahboobs (£1700), is deri ved from annual tributes levied on property, and firom

GAELIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The term Gaelic (Gwyddelian or Gadhelic) is used in two senses. In its wider signification, it designates

GAELIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

Scottish Highlanders as a spoken dialect; and that a popular and unwritten literature existed in that native and idiomatic Gaelic, in the poetry handed down by tradition, or composed by native bards innocent of all extraneous education in the written language of Ireland.

The first books printed for the use of the Scottish Highlanders were a translation of Knox's Prayer Book in 1567, by John Carsewell, Bishop of the Isles; a translation of Calvin's Catechism, in 1631; a translation of the Psalms of David, begun in 1659, and completed in 1694; and a translation of the Bible, published by the Rev. Robert Kirke, minister of Balquhidder, in 1690. All these works are in the Irish orthography and Irish dialect; the lastmentioned work, indeed, is nothing more than a reprint of Bishop Bedell's Irish version of the Bible, with a short vocabulary of Scottish Gaelic words, to adapt it to the use of the Scottish Highlanders. The first translations into the Scottish Gaelic were of Baxter's Call to the Unconverted, published in 1750; of the Psalms of David, in 1753, in 1787, and in 1807; of the New Testament, in 1767 and 1796; of Alleine's Alarm, in 1781; of the Old Testament, in 1783-1787, and in 1820; and of the Old and New Testaments, in 1826.

Vocabularies of the Scottish Gaelic were published in 1690, in 1702, in 1741, in 1795, and in 1815. The first Dictionary, by R. A. Armstrong, appeared in 1825; the largest and best was published under the auspices of the Highland Society of Scotland, in two quartos, in 1828. The best grammar is that of the Rev. Alexander Stewart, minister at Dingwall, published in 1801, and reprinted in 1812.

the northern branch of the Celtic languages, features of a native language, existed among the comprehending the Irish, the Highland-Scottish, and the Manx. See CELTIC NATIONS and IRISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. In its narrower signification, it designates the Highland-Scottish dialect, also known by the name of Erse or Irish. Mr W. F. Skene, one of the latest and best informed writers on the subject, holds that the differences between the language spoken by the Scotch Highlanders and the language spoken by the native Irish are (1) partly in the pronunciation, where the accentuation of the language is different, where that peculiar change in the initial consonant, produced by the influence of the previous word, and termed by the Irish grammarians eclipsis, is unknown except in the sibilant, where the vowel sounds are different, and there are even traces of a consonantal permutation; (2) partly in the grammar, where the Scottish Gaelic prefers the analytic form of the verb, and has no present tense, the old present being now used for the future, and the present formed by the auxiliary verb, where the plural of one class of the nouns is formed in a peculiar manner, resembling the Anglo-Saxon, and a different negative is used; (3) partly in the idioms of the language, where a greater preference is shewn to express the idea by the use of substantives, and the verb is anxiously avoided; and (4) in the vocabulary, which varies to a considerable extent, where words now obsolete in Irish are still living words, and others are used in a different sense.'-The Dean of Lismore's Book, introd. pp. xiv. xv. (Edin. 1862). The origin of the differences thus described is a question still in dispute. Mr Skene contends that they are ancient, and enter into the organisation of the language. The Irish scholars, on the The oldest written poetry in the Scottish Gaelic other hand, hold that they are comparatively modern is preserved in The Dean of Lismore's Book, and unimportant, and little more than provincial written between 1511 and 1551, by Sir James corruptions of the mother-language of Ireland. The Macgregor, vicar of Fortingall, and Dean of Lismore. late Mr Richard Garnett, one of the most learned It is now in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh. English philologists, is on the Irish side, holding Selections from it have been published at Edinburgh 'that Irish is the parent tongue, that Scottish during the present year (1862), with translations by Gaelic is Irish stripped of a few inflections, and the Rev. Thomas M'Lauchlan, as well into English that Manx is merely Gaelic with a few peculiar as into modern Scottish Gaelic, and with a prelimiwords, and disguised by a corrupt system of ortho-nary dissertation by Mr W. F. Skene. The volume graphy; and, again, that the language of the Scottish Highlands 'does not differ in any essential point from that of the opposite coast of Leinster and Ulster, bearing, in fact, a closer resemblance than Low German does to High German, or Danish to Swedish.'-Philological Essays, pp. 202, 204 (Lond. 1859). That the north of Ireland, and the Scottish Highlands and West Islands, were, at an early period, peopled by the same race, or races, is admitted on both sides. Mr Skene further admits, that from about the middle of the 12th c. to about the middle of the 16th c., Ireland exercised a powerful literary influence on the Scottish Highlands; that the Irish sennachies and bards were heads of a school which included the West Highlands; that the Highland sennachies were either of Irish descent, or, if they were of native origin, resorted to bardic schools in Ireland for instruction in the language and the accomplishments of their art; that in this way the language and literature of the Scottish Highlands must have become, by degrees, more and more assimilated to the language and literature of Ireland; and that it may well be doubted whether, towards the middle of the 16th c., there existed in the Scottish Highlands the means of acquiring the art of writing the language except in Ireland, or the conception of a written and cultivated literature, which was not identified with the language and learning of that island. Mr Skene holds, at the same time, that a vernacular Gaelic, preserving many of the independent

contains nine pieces ascribed to 'Ossian, the son of Finn,' who speaks of himself as contemporary with St Patrick, and pieces by later and less known writers, including a few of knightly or noble rank, such as Gerald Fitzgerald, fourth Earl of Desmond, in Ireland; Isabella Campbell, wife of the first Earl of Argyle; and 'Duncan MacCailein, the Good Knight,' believed to be Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenurchy. The literary merit of the compositions is very slender.

The bibliography of the scanty literature of the Scottish Gaelic will be found in Reid's Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica (Glasg. 1832). The modern names of most note are those of Robert Calder Mackay, or Robb Donn, as he is more commonly called in his native Sutherland, whose poems were published at Inverness in 1829; and Duncan Ban McIntyre, of Glenorchy, whose poems were published at Glasgow in 1834. The former was born in 1714, the latter in 1724; both were self-educated. The traditional prose literature has been collected and illustrated by Mr J. F. Campbell of Islay, in three pleasing volumes, Popular Tales of the West Highlands (Edin. 1860-1862).

Mr Skene has very clearly and fairly stated the long-disputed question as to the authenticity of the famous Poems of Ossian, published first in English, and afterwards in Gaelic, by Mr James Macpherson. The conclusions arrived at are: 1. That the characters introduced into Macpherson's poems were not invented by him, but were really the subjects