Putting.

In the accompanying illustration, the method of holding the club, when putting the ball into the hole, is shewn.

Golf Associations are numerous in Scotland, and in many instances the members wear a uniform when playing. Many professional players make their livelihood by golf, and are always ready to instruct beginners in the art, or to play matches with amateurs.

The rules laid down by the St Andrews Royal and Ancient Union Club are those that govern nearly all the other associations, and may be found in Chambers's Information for the People, No. 96. GOLFO DULCE, in English, Sweet or Fresh Gulf, lies in the state of Guatemala, in Central America, measuring 26 miles by 11, and having an average depth of 6 or 8 fathoms. It communicates with the outer sea, here known as the Gulf of Honduras, by a narrow strait or stream called

the Rio Dulce.

GO'LGOTHA, a Hebrew word signifying a 'skull,' and so it is interpreted by Luke; but by the other three evangelists, the place of a skull.' The Latin equivalent is Calvaria, a bare skull.' This place, the scene of the crucifixion of Christ, was situated without the gates of Jerusalem, on the eastern side of the city, although the common opinion handed down from the middle ages fixes it in the northwest (see CALVARY). It was probably the ordinary spot of execution, though this is to be inferred rather from the fact that, in the eyes of the Roman officers of justice, Christ was simply a common criminal, than from any supposed connection between the word 'skull' and a place of execution; G. receiving its name in all likelihood from its round skull-like form. A church was built over the spot in the 4th c. by Constantine. What is now called the 'Church of the Holy Sepulchre' to the north-west of Jerusalem, but within the walls of the city, has manifestly no claim whatever to be considered the building erected by Constantine; but while recent biblical scholars and travellers generally have assumed that the scene of our Saviour's crucifixion

Goliath Beetle (Goliathus magnus).

and remarkable for the large size of some of the species, particularly the African ones. They are also, in respect of their colours, splendid insects. Little is known of their habits.

GÖLLNITZ, a small town in the north of Hunbank of a river of the same name, a feeder of the gary, in the county of Zips, is situated on the left Hernad, 17 miles south-west of Eperies. It has important iron and copper mines, and manufactures of wire and cutlery. Pop. 5200.

GO'LLNOW, a small manufacturing town of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania, is situated on the right bank of the Ihna, 15 miles north-east of Stettin. It was formerly a Hanse-town, and is surrounded by walls, and defended by two forts. The manufactures are woollen cloth, ribbons, paper, and tobacco; there are also copper-works. Pop.

6207.

GOLOMY'NKA (Comephorus Baikalensis), a remarkable fish, found only in Lake Baikal, the only known species of its genus, which belongs to the goby family. It is about a foot long, is destitute of scales, and is very soft, its whole substance abounding in oil, which is obtained from it by pressure. It is never eaten.

GOLO'SHES (formerly called galoshes), from Galoche, a word through the French, from Galocha, the Spanish for a patten, clog, or wooden shoe. The French applied the term at first to shoes partly of leather and wood, the soles being wood, and the uppers of leather. The term was introduced to this country as a cordwainer's technicality, to signify a method of repairing old boots and shoes by putting a narrow strip of leather above the sole so as to surround the lower part of the upper leather. It was also adopted by the patten and clog makers to distinguish what were also called French clogs from ordinary clogs and pattens. Clogs were mere soles of wood with straps across the instep to keep them on; pattens were the same, with iron rings to raise them from the ground; but the galoshes were wooden soles, usually with a joint at the part where the tread of the foot came, and with upper leathers like very low shoes.

Now, however, these clogs, pattens, and goloshes

have completely passed away except in some rural districts which are almost inaccessible to modern inventions: the American goloshes have entirely superseded them. These are manufactured of vulcanised India rubber or caoutchouc, and are now inade in the most elegant forms; being elastic, they are worn as overshoes in wet weather, and are an excellent protection to the feet. At first, Indiarubber goloshes were all imported from the states of America, and in 1856 the value of the imports of this article reached the enormous sum of £75,442; now, however, vast numbers are made in this country, chiefly by the North British Rubber Company (Limited), whose works are called the Castle Mills, in Edinburgh. In this vast building, when in full work, 10,500 pairs of goloshes are daily made; and so perfect is the arrangement of the manufacture, which is chiefly conducted by Americans, that in a few hours large masses of the raw material are converted into overshoes, boots, sheets, bands, rings, washers, and a great variety of other useful articles. The process of making goloshes consists, first, in preparing the raw material; secondly, kneading it up with certain chemical materials, the composition of which is carefully concealed by the manufacturers, but the principal constituent is sulphur; thirdly, rolling it out into sheets of the thickness required; and lastly, fashioning it into goloshes.

In the first operation, the rubber is first placed in warm water violently agitated; this softens it, and removes a considerable quantity of dirt and other impurities; it is then put into a machine, which tears it into very small pieces in water, thus also removing much impurity. Still warm, and somewhat adhesive in consequence, the small fragments into which the rubber has been torn are spread out into a thick sheet, which travels between two rollers about an inch apart; these press the fragments together, and they adhere slightly in the form of a thick blanket, about two feet wide, and from four to six feet in length. The slight adhesion of the very irregularly shaped morsels of rubber renders this flattened sheet very porous, and in this state it is hung in the drying-room, to remove the moisture with which it is loaded. These sheets are next passed between large cylindrical iron rollers heated with steam internally, which compress the material into thin soft sheets. The chemical materials are

now spread equally over the sheet, and it is folded up and kneaded so as to work the vulcanising materials and rubber well together. This kneading process is performed by passing it several times through the hot rollers, folding it after each rolling into a dough-like mass. When this operation is completed, it is finally rolled out into thin sheets several yards in length, which are reeled off on cold rollers at some distance, so as to allow cooling, and it is then ready for the uppers of the commonest kind of goloshes, which are unlined; but the better sorts are lined with cotton cloth of different colours, and sometimes with other materials; the lining is effected by passing the piece of cloth through the rollers simultaneously with the rubber in the last process, and a firm adhesion of the two is effected by the heat and pressure.

Another machine has rollers so modelled that it produces a sheet thick enough for the soles, and on one surface the roughening is made by engraved lines crossing each other, to prevent the sole from slipping in wet weather. An ingenious arrangement of this machine forms about two inches of each side of the sheet which passes through it a little thicker than the middle portion, and this serves for the raised heels. After the sheets for the uppers and heels have been cooled and reeled off,

they pass through the cutting machines. In these are fitted sharp cutting moulds of different sizes and shapes: some cut out the inside linings and the outside uppers for fronts and heel-steppings; whilst others with great nicety cut the heeled soles out.

These various parts are now taken to the makers, who are usually females; and the last-which is now made of cast iron as an improvement on the wooden ones formerly in use-is rapidly covered over with the various parts, beginning with the lining and insole, the edges of which are cemented with a composition probably containing liquefied India rubber or gutta-percha; but its real composition is another secret of the manufacture, and is held to be a very important one: it produces an instantaneous and firm adhesion. The outer parts and the sole are fitted on with equal facility, and the workwoman then runs a wheel-tool round the edges and other parts, to produce the representation of seam marks. In this way a pair of shoes is produced in little more than five minutes. They are next coated with a varnish, which gives them a highly polished appearance; and when the varnish has hardened, which it does very quickly, they are transferred to the vulcanising ovens or chambers, in which, for some time, they are submitted to a high degree of heat, which produces a chemical union between the caoutchouc and the other materials which were mixed in with it at the beginning of the operations. When taken from the oven, they are removed to the packing-room, and are sent in boxes to all parts of the kingdom, and to most parts of Europe, especially Germany, where they are very extensively worn. The North British Rubber Company produced nearly three million pairs of overshoes and boots in 1861.

GOLPE, in Heraldry, a Roundel purpure. It is sometimes called a Wound. See ROUNDEL.

GOMARISTS, or CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS, the name by which the opponents of the doctrines of Arminius (q. v.), the founder of the Dutch Remonstrants, were designated. The party received this appellation from its leader, Francis Gomar. This theologian was born at Bruges, 30th January 1563, studied at the universities of Strasburg, Heidelberg, Oxford, and Cambridge, in the last-mentioned of which he took his degree of B.D. in 1584. In 1594, he was appointed professor of divinity at Leyden, and signalised himself by his vehement antipathy to the views of his colleague, Arminius. In the disputation between the Armenians and Calvinists, held at the Hague in 1608, his zeal was very conspicuous; and at the synod of Dort in 1618, he was mainly instrumental in securing the expulsion of the Arminians from the Reformed Church. He died at Gröningen in 1641. An edition of his works was published at Amsterdam in 1645. G., though stiff and bigoted in the last degree, and more Calvinistic than Calvin himself, was a man of various and extensive learning.

GOMBROO'N, called also BENDER or BUNDER ABBAS, a town and seaport of Persia, stands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, in the Strait of Ormuz, and opposite the island of that name. Bender Abbas owed its name and importance to Shah Abbás, who, assisted by the English, drove the Portuguese in 1622 from Ormuz, or Hormuz, then a flourishing commercial town on the island of the same name, ruined the seaport, and transferred its commerce to Gombroon. For some time G. prospered abundantly, French, Dutch, and English factories were erected here, and the population rose to about 30,000. A dispute among the natives, however, resulted in the destruction of the European factories and houses, and only the remains of these now exist. Trade then

almost entirely forsook G.; it is now inhabited by only about 4000 Arabs under a sheikh, who is subject to the sultan of Muscat, in Arabia. The town is surrounded by a mud wall; its streets are narrow and dirty.

GOME'RA, one of the Canary Islands (q. v.). GOMO'RRAH. See SODOM AND GOMORRAH. GOMU'TO, ARENG, or EJOO PALM (Arenga saccharifera, or Saguerus Rumphii), an important palm which grows in Cochin China and in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, particularly in moist and shady ravines. The stem is 20-30 feet high; the leaves 15-25 feet long, pinnated. The flowers are in bunches 6-10 feet long; the fruit is a yellowishbrown, three-seeded berry, of the size of a small apple, and extremely acrid. The stem, when young, is entirely covered with sheaths of fallen leaves, and black horse-hairlike fibres, which issue in great abundance from their margins; but as the tree increases in age, these drop off, leaving an elegant naked columnar stem. The strongest of the fibres, resembling porcupine quills in thickness, are used in Sumatra as styles for writing on the leaves of other palms. But the finer fibres are by far the most valuable; they are well known in eastern commerce as Gomuto or Ejoo fibre, and are much used for making strong cordage, particularly for the cables and standing-rigging of ships, European as well as native. Want of pliancy renders them less fit for running-rigging, and for many other purposes. They need no preparation but spinning or twisting. No ropes of vegetable fibre are so imperishable, when often wet, as those made of Gomuto fibre. At the

base of the leaves of the Gomuto palm there is a fine woolly material, called bara, which is much employed in caulking ships and stuffing cushions. The stem contains a large quantity, 150-200 lbs., of a kind of sago. The saccharine sap, obtained in great abundance by cutting the spadices of the flowers, is a delicious beverage, and by fermentation yields an intoxicating palm wine (neroo), from which a spirituous liquor called brum is made.

GONAI'VES, a seaport of Hayti, with an excellent harbour, stands on a bay of its own name, which deeply indents the west coast of the island. It is 65 miles to the north-west of Port Republicain, formerly Port au Prince, the capital.

GO'NDAR, a city of Abyssinia, capital of the kingdom of Gondar or Amhara, is situated in lat. 12° 36' N., and long. 37° 29′ E., on an insulated hill at an elevation of 7420 feet above sea level, and is 30 miles distant from the northern shore of Lake Dembea or Izana (see ABYSSINIA). G. is the residence of the emperor or Negus, whose authority is now merely nominal, and at one time had from 50 to 100 churches and about 50,000 inhabitants; but since the dismemberment of the kingdom, it has greatly declined, and its extent or population cannot now be accurately stated. It is poorly and irregularly built, and resembles a wood rather than a city, on account of the number of trees surrounding the houses. The palace of the emperor, a square stone structure flanked with towers, is the most important building. There are no shops or bazaars, all the articles for sale being exposed on mats in the market-place. G. has manufactures of firearms, sword-blades, knives, scissors, razors, shields, pottery, &c.; and a considerable transit trade between Massuah on the Red Sea and the south of Abyssinia, in slaves, musk, wax, ivory, coffee, honey, &c. The mean temperature of G., as observed by Rüppell during the seven months from October to April inclusive, was 69°, and the lowest temperature during that time was 53-09°. A great quantity of rain falls here.

In the centre there is a curtained chamber for the occupants: the boat is propelled by means of oars or poles by one, two, or occasionally four men. The rowers stand as they row, and wear the livery of the family to which the gondola belongs.

The term gondola is also applied to passage-boats having six or eight oars, used in other parts of Italy.

GONDWANA, the land of the Gonds, is a hilly tract of Hindustan, lying between 19° 50′ and 24° 30, and in E. long. between 77° 38′ and 87° 20. It occupies a somewhat central position, sending its drainage at once northward into the Jumna, eastward through the Mahanadi into the Bay of Nerbudda into the Arabian Sea-the water-shed in Bengal, and westward through the Tapti and the some places attaining an elevation of 5000 feet. So isolated a locality, besides being in itself unfavourable to civilisation, is rendered still more so by the extreme barbarism of the inhabitants, who are regarded, with some appearance of probability, as the genuine aborigines of India. Certain it is, that the country has never really formed a part of any of the great empires in the east.

GO'NFALON (Ital. gonfalone), an ensign or standard; in virtue of bearing which, the chief magistrates in many of the Italian cities were known as gonfaloniers.

GONG, an Indian instrument of percussion, made of a mixture of metals (78 to 80 parts of copper, and 22 to 20 parts of tin), and shaped into a basinlike form, flat and large, with a rim of a few inches deep. The sound of the G. is produced by striking it, while hung by the rim, with a wooden mallet, which puts the metal into an extraordinary state of vibration, and produces a very loud piercing

sound.

GONGORA, LUIS Y. ARGOTE, a Spanish poet, was born at Cordova, 11th July 1561; studied law at the university of Salamanca, where he composed the greater part of his erotic poems, romances, and satires. At the age of 45, he took orders, and obtained a small prebend in the cathedral of Cordova. He was afterwards appointed chaplain to Philip III., and died in his native city 24th May 1627. G.'s poetic career divides itself into two periods. In his first or youthful period, he yielded himself up entirely to the natural tendencies of his genius, and to the spirit of the nation. His lyrics and romances of this period are in the old

genuine Spanish style; and in respect to their caustic satire and burlesque wit, are among the most admirable specimens of the class of poems to which they belong. G., however, wished to outdo all his predecessors, and to furnish something wholly new and unheard of; the result of which unfortunate ambition was the introduction of a new poetic phraseology, called the estilo culto, or the cultivated style. From this point the second period in G.'s literary career dates. To popularise the estilo culto, he wrote his Polifemo, Soledades, and the Fables of Pyramus and Thisbe, productions of the most pedantic and tasteless description, poor in invention and thought, but rich in high-sounding pompous phrases, and overloaded with absurd imagery, and mythological allusions, expressed in language of studied obscurity. In this way he became the founder of a new school, the Gongoristas, or Cultoristas, who even surpassed their master in the depravity of their literary tastes. The most complete edition of G.'s works is that by Gonzalo de Florez y Córdoba (Mad. 1633). Some of his romances have been translated into German by J. G. Jacobi (Halle, 1767).

GONIATITES, a genus of fossil cephalopodous mollusca, belonging to the same family as the ammonites. The genus is characterised by the structure of the septa, which are lobed, but without lateral denticulations, as in ammonites; they consequently exhibit, in a section, a continuous undulating line. Some forms with slightly waved septa approach very near to the nautilus, from which, however, they are at once separated, by the position of the small and delicate siphuncle, which is on the dorsal or external side of the shell. The lines of growth on the external surface have a sigmoid direction. The siphonal portion is shorter than the sides, forming a sinus at the back, as in the nautilus. The last chamber, the one tenanted by the animal, occupies a whole whorl, and has besides a considerable lateral expansion. The shells are small, seldom exceeding six inches in diameter.

This genus is confined to the Paleozoic strata: upwards of 150 species have been described from the Devonian, Carboniferous, and Triassic measures. GONI'DIA (Gr. gone, generation, and eidos, an appearance), small green bodies which in some cryptogamous plants serve the purpose of reproduction, but apparently after a manner analogous to that of bulbils in phanerogamous plants, rather than by true fructification. It is not, however, certain that the bodies called gonidia in different classes of cryptogamous plants are all of exactly the same nature. The gonidia of Lichens (q. v.) are found in layers in the interior of the thallus. In some of the lowest vegetable organisms, as Desmidiacea, the gonidia are formed by the endochrome or contents of the cell breaking up into granules, sometimes invested with cilia, and moving as zoospores, at first within the cavity of the cell in which they are formed, and afterwards without it.

GONIO'METER, an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals. The simplest instrument is that invented by Carangeau, which consists of two brass rulers turning on a common centre, between which the crystal is so placed that its faces coincide with the edges of the rulers, and the angle is measured on a graduated arc. For large crystals this is sufficiently accurate, but as many minerals are found crystallised only in small crystals, and as small crystals of any mineral are generally the most perfect, an instrument capable of measuring more exactly was required. The one generally in use is the reflecting goniometer invented by Wollaston, and improved by Nauman. This is a

more complicated instrument, yet easy of application, and it will measure very small crystals with certainty to within a single minute (1'). The angle is measured by the reflection of the rays of light from the surface of the different faces of the crystal. GONORRHOEA (gonos, progeny or seed, and rheo, I flow), a indiscriminately to all discharges from the genital name originally applied almost passages in both sexes, but especially in the male. In the course of usage, the term has been almost entirely restricted to the designation of one particular kind of discharge, which, from its connection with a contagious poison, was originally called, in strict nosological language, G. virulenta. This form of the disease is usually caused by the direct communication of sound persons with those already affected; and accordingly G. is one of the numerous penalties attending an indiscriminate and impure intercourse of the sexes. See SYPHILIS. G. is a very acute and painful form of disease; it is liable, however, to leave its traces in the more chronic form of gleet, which may last for a considerable time, and may give rise to alarm from being mistaken for other disorders. A description of the symptoms and cure of G. would of course be out of place in a work like the present; but we may avail ourselves of this opportunity to warn the victims of G., and the allied disorders, against consulting any but medical men of the highest standing, and of undoubted character. An unworthy class of practitioners exists, who live chiefly by inveighing and frightening the unwary, and who not unfrequently extort vast sums of money by threats of exposure of what is commu nicated to them in confidence. The advertisements of these men are an offence to decency, and should act as beacons to the public, rather than as they are intended.

GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, was originally founded in 1348 by Edmund Gonville, son of Sir Nicholas Gonville, rector of Terrington, in Norfolk, and endowed for a master and three fellows. In 1353, William Bateman, Bishop of Norwich, whom Gonville had appointed his executor, changed the situation of the college to its present site, and altered the name to the 'Hall of the Annunciation of Blessed Mary the Virgin.' In 1558, Dr Caius obtained a royal charter, founding the college for the third time, and altering the name to that which it now bears. By the present statutes, the college consists of a master, thirty fellows, and thirty-six scholars. There are also at this college four studentships in medicine, founded by Christopher Tancred, each of the annual value of £113.

GONZA'GA, a town of Northern Italy, 14 miles south-south-east of Mantua, with 14,580 inhabitants, is the chief town of the district of Gonzaga, of which the population is 24,841. The town was formerly fortified and protected by a strong castle, and some assert that the family of Gonzaga, who ruled for four centuries over Mantua, originated in this locality. The territory surrounding G. is a well-watered and fertile plain.

GONZAGA, HOUSE OF, a princely family of German origin, from which sprang a long line of sovereign Dukes of Mantua and Montferrat. The sway of this race over Mantua extended over a period exceeding three centuries, and many of its members were magnificent promoters and cultivators of arts, science, and literature. Wielding originally in the state the vast civic influence which in so many instances we find exercised by families of weight in the history of Italy, the Gonzagas gradually monopolised all the chief posts of command,