xlv. 19; 1.9; Exod. xiv. 6, 7; and from the instruments used by the Egyptians in irrigating their lands, Deut. xi. 10. It is implied in the mention of these, and some others, that instruments, not expressly named, but which were of course necessary for the formation of those which are named, were in existence.

III. Geography. Geographical notices occur so frequently in the Bible, that it is not necessary to say much on this point, see Gen. x. 1-30; xii. 4—15; xiv. 1—16; xxviii. 2—9; xlix. 13, etc. In the time of Joshua, the whole of Palestine was subjected to a geographical division, Josh. xviii. 9; it is therefore evident, from their geographical knowledge, as well as from other circumstances already mentioned, that there must have existed among the Hebrews the rudiments at least, of mathematical science.

§. 105. Medicine.

At Babylon, those attacked with a disease were left in the streets, for the purpose of learning from such as might pass them, what practices, or what medicines they had found of utility, when afflicted in a similar manner. This was perhaps done also in other countries. The Egyptians carried their sick into the temples of Serapis; the Greeks carried theirs into those of Esculapius. In both of these temples, the means by which various cures had been effected, were preserved in writing. With the aid of these recorded remedies, the art of healing assumed, in progress of time, the aspect of a science. It assumed such a form, first, in Egypt, and at a much more recent period, in Greece; but the physicians of the former were soon surpassed in skill by those of the latter country. That the Egyptians, however, had no little knowledge of medicine, may be gathered from what is said in the Pentateuch respecting the marks of leprosy. That some of the medical prescriptions should fail of bringing the expected relief, is nothing strange, since Pliny himself mentions some, which are far from producing the effects he ascribes to them. Physicians, D, E, are mentioned first in Gen. 1. 2; Exod. xxi. 19; Job, xiii. 4. Some acquaintance with surgical operations is implied in the rite of circumcision, Gen. xvii. 11-14. There is ample evidence, that the Israelites had some acquaintance with the internal structure of the human system, although it does not appear that dissections of the human body

for medical purposes were made till as late as the time of the first Ptolemy. That physicians sometimes undertook to exercise their skill in removing diseases of an internal nature, is evident from the circumstance of David's playing upon the harp to cure the malady of Saul, 1 Sam. xvi. 16. The art of healing was entrusted by the Hebrews, and the Egyptians, to the priests; and by a law of the state, the Hebrew priests were obliged to take cognizance of leprosies, Lev. xiii. 1, et seq.; Deut. xxiv. 8,9. Reference is made to physicians who were not priests, and to instances of sickness, disease, healing, etc. in the following passages, 1 Sam. xvi. 16; 1 Kings, i. 2-4; xv. 23; 2 Kings, viii. 29; ix. 15; Isaiah, i. 6; Jer. viii. 22; Ezek. xxx. 21; Prov. iii. 18; xi. 30; xii. 18; xvi. 15; xxix. 1. The probable reason of king Asa's not seeking help from God, but from the physicians, as mentioned 2 Chron. xvi. 12, was, that they had not at that period recourse to the simple medicines which nature offered, but to certain superstitious rites and incantations; and this, no doubt, was the ground of the reflection which was cast upon him. The balm or balsam, 7, 7, was particularly celebrated as a medicine, Jer. viii. 22; xlvi. 11; li. 8. That mineral baths were deemed worthy of notice may be inferred from Gen. xxxvi. 24, [see Gesenius on the word ]. About the time of Christ, the Hebrew physicians advanced in science, and increased in numbers, Mark, v. 26; Luke, iv. 23; v. 31; viii. 43; Josephus, Antiq. xvii. 6. 5. It appears from the Talmud, Shabbath, p. 110, that the Hebrew physicians were accustomed to salute the sick by saying, " Arise from your disease." This salutation had full effect in the mouth of Jesus, Mark, v. 41. According to the Jerusalem Talmud, a sick man was judged to be in a state of convalescence when he began to take his usual food, comp. Mark, v. 43.

§. 106. PHYSICS, NATURAL HISTORY, AND PHILOSOPHY.

To Physics, or natural philosophy, little attention was paid in the east. A knowledge of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, or the science of natural history, always excited much greater interest. We are informed in 1 Kings, iv. 33, that Solomon himself had given a description of the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

Traces of philosophy, strictly so called, i. e. the system of pre

vailing moral opinions, may be found in the book of Job, in the 37th, 39th, and 73rd Psalms, also in the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, but chiefly in the apocryphal book of Wisdom, and the writings of the son of Sirach. During the captivity, the Jews acquired many new notions, particularly from the Mehestani, and appropriated them, as occasion offered, to their own purposes. They at length became acquainted with the philosophy of the Greeks, which appears abundantly in the book of Wisdom. After the captivity, the language, in which the sacred books were written, was no longer vernacular. Hence it became necessary to have an interpreter during the sabbatic year, a time when the whole law was read; and also on the sabbath in the synagogues, which had been recently erected, that the people might understand what was read. These interpreters taught the Hebrew language at the schools. The teachers in these schools, who, for the two generations preceding the time of Christ, had acquired some knowledge of the Greek philosophy, were not satisfied with a simple interpretation of the Hebrew idiom, but shaped the interpretation so as to render it conformable to their philosophy. Thus arose contentions, which produced the various sects of Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. In the time of our Saviour, divisions had arisen among the Pharisees themselves. No less than eighteen abstruse questions, if we may believe the Jewish Rabbins, were contested at that period, between the schools of Hillel and Shammai. One of which questions was an inquiry, "What cause was sufficient for a bill of divorce?" If the Shammai and Hillel of the Talmud are the learned men, Sameas and Pollio, mentioned in Josephus, and who flourished thirty-four years before Christ, then Shammai or Sameas is undoubtedly the same with the Simeon who is spoken of Luke, ii. 25-35; and his son Gamaliel, so celebrated in the Talmud, is the same with the Gamaliel mentioned Acts, v. 34; xxii. 3.

Anciently learned men were denominated among the Hebrews

, as, among the Greeks, they were called σopoí, i. e., wise men. In the time of Christ the common appellation given to men of that description was ypaμpareús, in the Hebrew, a scribe. They were addressed by the honorary title of Rabbi, 27, 7, i. e., great or master. The Jews, in imitation of the Greeks, had their seven wise men, who were called Rabboni, 17. Gamaliel was one of the number. They called themselves the children of

nearly to the The heads of

The dis

Some of

wisdom; an expression, which corresponds very Greek propos, Matt. xi. 19; Luke, vii. 35. sects were called fathers, Matt. xii. 27; xxiii. 1-9. ciples,, were denominated sons or children. the Jewish teachers had private lecture rooms; but they generally taught and disputed in synagogues, in temples, and in fact, wherever they could find an audience. The method of these teachers was the same with that which prevailed among the Greeks. Any disciple, who chose, might propose questions, upon which it was the duty of the teachers to remark and give their opinions, Luke, ii. 46. The teachers were not invested with their functions by any formal act of the church or of the civil authority; they were self-constituted. They had no fixed salary; but occasionally received a present from their disciples, which was called an honorary, Tiμń, HONORARIUM, 1 Tim. v. 17. They generally acquired a subsistence by the exercise of some art or handicraft. That they took a higher seat than their auditors, although it was probably the case, does not follow, as is sometimes supposed, from Luke, ii. 46. According to the Talmudists they were bound to hold no conversation with women, and to refuse to sit at table with the lower class of people, John, iv. 27; Matt. ix. 11. The subjects on which they lectured were numerous, commonly intricate, and of no great utility. This may be ascertained from the numerous specimens given in the Talmud.

NOTE. A sort of academical degree was conferred on the pupils in the Jewish seminaries, which, after the destruction of Jerusalem, were established at Babylon and Tiberias. The circumstances attending the conferring of this degree, are described by Maimonides, Jad chazaka, lib. vi. 4, as follows:

I. The candidate for the degree was examined, both in respect to his moral character and his literary acquisitions.

II. Having undergone this examination with approbation, the disciple then ascended an elevated seat, Matt. xxiii. 2.

III. A writing tablet was presented to him, to signify that he should write down his acquisitions, lest they might escape from his memory, and be lost.

IV. A key was presented to him to signify, that he might now open to others the treasures of knowledge, Luke, xi. 52. V. Hands were laid upon him; a custom derived from Numb. xxvii. 18.

VI. A certain power, or authority, was conferred upon him, probably to be exercised over his own disciples.

VII. Finally, he was saluted, in the school of Tiberias, with the title of Rabbi, 27; in the school of Babylon, with that of Master,.

CHAPTER VII.

OF COMMERCE.

§. 107. ANTIQUITY OF COMMERCE.

MERCHANDISE, in its various branches, was carried on in the east, at a very early period; and the traffic between nations, both by sea and land, soon became very considerable. Accordingly frequent mention is made of public roads, fording places, bridges, and beasts of burthen; also of ships for the transportation of property, of weights, measures, and coin, both in the oldest parts of the Bible, and in the most ancient profane histories, Gen. xxiii. 16; xxxvii. 25; xlii. 1—5; Judg. v. 17; Exod. xxv. 4; Deut. xix. 3; Josh. xii. 5; xiii. 2; 1 Sam, xxvii. 810.

§. 108. COMMERCE OF THE PHOENICIANS, ARABIANS, AND

EGYPTIANS.

The Phoenicians anciently held the first rank, as a commercial nation. Either in person, or by their agents, they purchased goods of various kinds throughout all the east. They then carried them in ships on the Mediterranean, as far as the shores of Africa and Europe; brought back in return merchandise and silver, and disposed of these in the more eastern countries. The first metropolis of the Phoenicians was Sidon; afterwards Tyre became the principal city. Tyre was built two hundred and forty years before the temple of Solomon, or twelve hundred and fifty one before Christ. The Phoenicians had ports of their own