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Sodom, otherwise called the bitter and poisonous grapes and clusters. They are said to be beautiful outside, but within, corruption and ashes, Deut. xxxii. 32. In the spring, when the Jordan rises, the lake itself is swollen. The inhabitants, therefore, dig pits on the shore, which receive the waters of the lake; the water in the pits stagnates after the fall of the lake, goes off gradually in vapour, and leaves a bed of salt, which sort of salt is used by the whole of that region, Zeph. ii. 9; Ezech. xlvii. 11.

The other rivers, which empty into the Dead sea are, 1. from the west, Kedron, St. John, xviii. 1, which arises in a valley of the same name between Jerusalem and the mount of Olives; its channel is dry except in the winter. Its direction is first south, then east, through the steep cliffs of the desert Engedi, where it receives some accession by means of the torrents from the mountains, and then decends into the Dead sea. 2. Near the southern extremity flows in the Saphia, or Saphira, a considerable stream. 3. On the eastern shore, nearly in the centre, is the mouth of the torrent Zerea, and a little north of it, 4. is the mouth of the river Arnon, which has its rise in the valleys of mount Gilead, from the torrents of that mountain. It flows first in a southern direction, and then west, so as to form with the Dead sea, the Jordan, and the Jabok, a peninsula. The channel of this river, as we have already said, separated on the east the Gadites and the Reubenites from the Ammonites, and on the south the Reubenites from the Moabites.

§. 20. OTHER RIVERS.

Of the other rivers and torrents, which are somewhat celebrated, may be mentioned, I. THE BELUS, a small river, according to Pliny only four miles in length; it arises in the mountains of the tribe of Asher, and empties itself into the Mediterranean about two furlongs south of Ptolemais. The sand of its banks, and of the seashore in the neighbourhood, has been much used in the manufacture of glass, and was formerly imported by the Venetians and others for that purpose..

II. THE KISHON. It arises from the northern foot of mount Tabor, where the Tabor unites with the mountain called little Hermon; it then divides into two branches. The smaller share of the waters, that descend from these mountains, flows east through the valley of Jezreel into lake Gennesareth. The re

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mainder, which forms the larger body, runs west, through the valley of Jezreel, and, after being increased by the accession of many small streams, enters the sea near Carmel. The last mentioned branch of the river was called Megiddo, and anciently diIvided the tribe of Issachar from the tribe of Zebulun.

III. THE BROOK OF REEDS; it is dry except in the winter. In its course from east to west, it formerly separated the tribe of Ephraim from that of Manasseh, Josh. xvii. 8, 9. It enters the Mediterranean south of Cæsarea.

IV. THE BROOK ESHKOL; it arises in the mountains of Judah and enters the Mediterranean at Askelon. It seems to be the same with the brook Sorek, Num. xiii. 24; Judg. xvi. 4.

V. THE BROOK BESOR; it enters the sea at Gaza.

NOTE. It may be remarked here, that signifies a river, brook, or torrent, which flows in the winter, though it may be perfectly dry in the summer; while signifies a large stream, and if it have the article prefixed, almost always means the Euphrates.

§. 21. ON THE CLIMATE OF PAlestine.

The state of the atmosphere in this climate is different in different places, but it is not so changeable as in some parts of Europe. We shall state its variarions during the six divisions of the oriental year, mentioned Gen. viii. 22; which have been perpetuated to this day among the Arabians, see Golii Lex. Arab. p. 934.

or the

During the first part of the year, which is called Harvest, and which extends from the middle of April to the middle of June, the sky is serene, the atmosphere in the latter part of April is warm, sometimes oppressively so, excepting in the valleys and on the shores of the sea, where it is temperate. The heat continues to increase, and becomes more and more unpleasant towards the latter part of this season.

During the second part of the year, which is called Y, the time of fruits, or Summer, extending from the middle of June to the middle of August, the heat is so oppressive, that the effect of it is felt through the night, and the inhabitants sleep in the open air.

The third season, extending from the middle of August to the middle of October, is called E, or the hot season; because in the

commencement of it the heat continues very severe, although it soon begins to abate.

From the time of harvest, or the middle of April, to the middle of September, there is neither rain nor thunder, Prov. xxvi. 1; 1 Sam. xii. 17; Jerome on Amos, iv. 7. Sometimes, in the beginning of the harvest, or the latter half of April, a cloud is perceived in the morning, which, as the sun rises, gradually disappears, Hos. vi. 4. But in the months of May, June, July, and August, not a cloud is seen, and the earth is not wet, except by the dew, which is, therefore, every where used as a symbol of the divine. benevolence; Gen. xxvii. 28; xlix. 25; Deut. xxxii. 2; xxxiii. 13; Job, xxix. 19; Micah, v. 7. The dew, copious as it is, affords no support in the excessive heat of summer, except to the stronger kind of herbs; the smaller and less vigorous, unless watered from some rivulet, or by human art and labour, wither and die, Ps. xxxii. 4. If at this season of the year a spark or brand fall among the dry herbs and grass, a wide conflagration commences, especially if brambles, shrubs, or a forest be near, Ps. lxxxiii. 14; Isa. ix. 18; Jer. xxi. 14; comp. Exod. xxii. 6; Joel, i. 19; Jer. ix. 12. The country generally presents a squalid appearance, for the fountains and brooks are dried, and the ground is so hard, that it splits open into fissures. These effects are accelerated, if the east wind happens to blow a few days, which is not only destructive to the vines and harvest fields on land, but to the vessels at sea on the Mediterranean; Hos. xiii. 15; Jonah, iv. 8; Job, xiv. 2; xv. 2; Isa. xl. 7; Gen. xli. 6, 23; Ezek. xvii. 10; xix. 12; xxvii. 26; Ps. xlviii. 7; ciii. 15; Acts, xxvii. 14.

Every wind is called by the orientals, an east wind, which blows from any point of the compass between the east and north, and between the east and south, see Shaw's Travels, p. 285, and Prosper Alpinus de Medicina Ægyptiaca, near the beginning. The breeze, which blows a few hours before the setting of the sun in that climate, is called among the Persians, to this time, as in Gen. iii. 7, the breeze of the day, i. e. the cooling or refreshing breeze of the day, see Chardin, Voy. t. iv. p. 8.

During the fourth part of the year, which is called or, Seed-time, i. e. from the middle of October to the middle of December, the appearance of the sky is various, sometimes dark and

cloudy, but calm, and sometimes rainy. In the latter part of October, begin the first or autumnal rains, so necessary for the Sower. The atmosphere still continues warm, and at times it is very hot, but the weather gradually grows colder, and towards the end of this division of the seasons, the snows fall on the mountains. The brooks are still dry, and the water in the rivers is shallow. In the second half of November, the leaves fall from the trees. Some, who are less robust, find it necessary to have a fire, which they continue until April, Jer. xxxvi. 22; others do without one the whole winter.

The fifth part of the year, , extending from the middle of December to the middle of February, constitutes the Winter. The snows, which are then not unfrequent, scarcely continue through the day, except on the mountains; the ice is thin, and melts as soon as the sun ascends to any considerable height. The north winds are chill, and the cold, particularly on the mountains, which are covered with snow, is intense. The roads are slippery, and travelling is both tedious and dangerous, particularly through the declivities of the mountains, Jer. xiii. 16; xxiii. 12; Sirach, xliii. 22; Matt. xxiv. 20. When the sky is serene and tranquil, and the sun is unclouded, the heat in the valleys and plains is sometimes great, as Josephus expressly testifies in regard to the plain of Cæsarea near the sea. Thunder, lightning, and hail are frequent; the brooks are filled; the rivers are swollen; the fields are covered with flowers. As January departs and February enters, the grain fields flourish; the trees put forth their foliage; the amygdalus, the earliest tree of the forest, is in bloom about the middle of February. [Cantic. ii. 12, 13.]

Finally, the sixth part of the year, from the middle of February to the middle of April, is called, or cold, because in the commencement of it the weather is still cold, though it soon grows warm and even hot. The rains still continue, but are diminished; thunder and lightning and hail are frequent, though they cease towards the end of this season. The rain during this season is called the latter rain.

The first rain, or autumnal, and the latter, or vernal, are necessary to the fertility of the earth, and greatly to be desired, Lev. xxvi. 4; Deut. viii. 7; xi. 14, 17; Isa. xxx. 23; Jer. iii. 3; v. 24; Hosea, vi. 3; Joel, ii. 3; Zech. x. 1; Job, xxix. 23; Prov.

xvi. 15; xxv. 14; James, v. 7. Rains in those regions are cold, and are announced by previous whirlwinds, raising the dust, which are expressed by Arabic words, which mean messengers, and good messengers, or tidings, Koran, vii. 55; lxxvii. 1—3. By the Hebrews they are sometimes called the word, or the command of God, Ps. cxlvii. 15, 18. The north and west wind in particular indicate rain, 1 Kings, xviii. 42-45; Prov. xxv. 23, If the evening be red, the morrow is expected to be serene; if the morning be red, rain is expected: Matt. xvi. 2,

§. 22. FERTILITY OF THE SOIL.

The fertility of soil, so celebrated by Moses, is confirmed by the testimony of all who have visited this region. Even the uncultivated and desert tracts are not destitute of rich spots, although they have comparatively but a small claim to the praise of fertility. If the untilled and waste places at the present day afford no very prepossessing appearance, it ought to be remembered, that such desolations were predicted by Moses, Deut. xxix. 22, et seq. and that the country has been laid waste successively by Assyrians, Chaldeans, Syrians, Romans, Saracens, the European Crusaders, the Turks, and Moguls; and that it now groans under the dominion of the Turks, who neither protect the agriculturalist from the incursions of the Arabs, nor afford him any encouragement, but the contrary. And yet it is the unanimous testimony of travellers in regard to this country, that, where it is cultivated, it is extremely fertile. It produces all sorts of fruittrees; and vines are not wanting, although the Mohammedans do not drink wine. There are abundance of domesticated animals, of wild beasts, and birds. Josephus, Jewish War, b. iii. c. 3. §. 3, praises Peraa (which at the present time is a desert) for its vines and its palm trees: and particularly celebrates the region near the lake Gennesareth, also the plain of Jericho, both of which are now uninhabited and desolate; b. iii. c. 10. §. 8; b. iv. c. 8. §. 3. Indeed, we are informed by Josephus, that in Galilee there were two hundred and four cities and towns, that the largest of the cities had 150,000, and the smallest towns 15,000 inhabitants. Hence we can account for it, that Josephus himself, in this small province, short of forty miles long and thirty broad, collected an army of nearly an 100,000 men, Jewish War, b. ii. c. 20. §. 6. As so many people were collected in such

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