spect to crucifixion, “ Ab oculis, auribusque, et omni cogitatione hominum removendum esse." The sufferings endured by a person on whom this punishment is inflicted, are narrated by George GOTTLIEB RICHTER, a German physician, in a Dissertation on the Saviour's Crucifixion, at page 36, et seq.

I. The position of the body is unnatural, the arms being extended back and almost immoveable. In case of the least motion an extremely painful sensation is experienced in the hands and feet, which are pierced with nails, and in the back, which is lacerated with stripes.

II. The nails, being driven through the parts of the hands and feet which abound in nerves and tendons, create the most exquisite anguish.

III. The exposure of so many wounds to the open air brings on an inflammation, which every moment increases the poignancy of the suffering.

IV. In those parts of the body which are distended or pressed, more blood flows through the arteries than can be carried back into the veins. The consequence is, that a greater quantity of blood finds its way from the AORTA into the head and stomach, than would be carried there by a natural and undisturbed circulation. The blood vessels of the head become pressed and swollen, which of course causes pain, and a redness of the face. The circumstance of the blood being impelled in more than ordinary quantities into the stomach is an unfavourable one also; because it is that part of the system, which not only admits of the blood being stationary, but is peculiarly exposed to mortification. The AORTA, not being at liberty to empty, in the usual free and undisturbed way, the blood which it receives from the left ventricle of the heart, is unable to receive its usual quantity. The blood of the lungs, therefore, is unable to find a free circulation. This general obstruction extends its effects also to the right ventricle, and the consequence is an internal excitement, and exertion, and anxiety, which are more intolerable than the anguish of death itself. All the large vessels about the heart, and all the veins and arteries in that part of the system, on account of the accumulation and pressure of blood, are the source of inexpressible misery.

V. The degree of anguish is gradual in its increase, and the person crucified is able to live under it, commonly till the third,

and sometimes till the seventh day. Pilate, therefore, being surprised at the speedy termination of the Saviour's life, inquired in respect to the truth of it of the centurion himself, who commanded the soldiers, Mark, xv. 44. In order to bring their life to a more speedy termination, so that they might be buried on the same day, the bones of the two thieves were broken with mallets, John, xix. 31-37; and in order to ascertain whether Jesus was really dead, or whether he had merely fallen into a swoon, a soldier thrust his lance into his side, (undoubtedly his left side,) but no signs of life appeared, John, xix. 13-37. If he had not been previously dead, a wound of this kind in his side would have put a period to his life, as has been shown both by the physician Eschenbach and by Gruner, the former in his Opuscul. Medic. de Servatore non apparenter, sed vere mortuo, and the latter in his Dissert. Inaug. Medic. de Jesu Christi morte vera, non synopticá, 1800. The part pierced was the PERICARDIUM; hence lymph and blood flowed out.

§. 262. THE PUBLIC EXECUTIONers.

When the sentence of death was pronounced by the king, it was executed by his body-guard. Compare §. 236. Sometimes it was done by some other person, who considered the employment an honour, 2 Sam. i. 15; iv. 12.

The kings of Persia formerly, as is the case to this day, were unable to recall the sentence of death, when once passed. Dan. vi. 15-25.

Criminals were every where bound with their own girdle, and hurried away to punishment. Comp. John, xxi. 18; Acts, xxi. 10-14.

Homicides were put to death by the blood-avenger, a, i. e. by the nearest male relation of the person slain, of whom we shall speak more particularly in the next section. Where STONING was the punishment, the process was commenced by the witnesses themselves, whose example was followed, and the punishment rendered complete by the people, Deut. xvii. 7. The Roman magistrates had their lictors; but the soldiers, in the time of the Cesars, executed the sentence of the CROSS. The dress of the crucified person was given to the soldiers, Matt. xxvii. 35; Mark, xv. 24; Luke, xxiii. 34; John, xix. 23, 24.

§. 263. OF THE Blood-avenger, and citIES OF REFUGE. The execution of the punishment which in Gen. ix. 6. was decreed against homicide, devolved on the brother or other nearest relation of the person whose life had been taken away. In case he did not slay the guilty person, he was considered infamous. Hence the application of the Hebrew word, GOEL, i. e. spotted or contaminated, which he bore till the murder was revenged.

A law of this kind, viz. which authorises the blood-avenger, may indeed be necessary, where there is no legally constituted tribunal of justice; but as soon as such an one is established, the law should cease. To change a law, however, or practice of long standing, is a matter of no little difficulty. Moses, therefore, left it as he found it; but he endeavoured, nevertheless, to prevent its abuses.

To this end, he appointed cities of refuge, three beyond, and three on this side of the Jordan. He took care also, that roads leading to them in straight lines should be laid out in every direction, which were to be distinguished from other streets. Any one who had slain a person unintentionally; any person who had slain another in consequence of his unjustly attempting his life, or had slain a thief before the rising of the sun, fled by one of these roads to the cities which have been mentioned. He was not to depart from the city into which he had fled, until the death of the high priest; after which the right of revenge could not be legally exercised.

All persons who had been the cause of death to another, might flee into one of those cities, which were the property of the priests and Levites, and which are named in Numb. xxxv. 9—29; Deut. iv. 41-43; xix. 1—13; Josh. xx. 1–9; xxi. 11–13, 21, 27, 32, 38; but they were all examined, and if found, according to the laws, guilty of homicide, were delivered up to the avenger of blood. For the law of retaliation (JUS TALIONIS) was most strictly inflicted on those who were known to have been guilty of intentional murder; even the altar itself, in such a case, afforded no refuge; and no commutation whatever was admissible, Exod. xxi. 12; Numb. xxxv. 9-35; Deut. xix. 1-13; 1 Kings, ii. 28-34.

The opinion that the place where human blood has been shed,

is watered neither with dew nor with rain, till the murderer has suffered punishment, appears to have prevailed at a very ancient period, 2 Sam. i, 21; Ezek. xxiv. 7, 8.

§. 264. OF THE UNKNOWN Murderer.

[The original of this section is but little more than a literal statement, in the author's words, of the law that is found in Deut. xxi. 1-9. As far as the law, therefore, is concerned, it will be as satisfactory, perhaps more so, to have it stated in the language of the common English version, which is as follows.]

1. "If one be found slain in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee to possess it, lying in the field, and it be not known who hath slain him;

2. Then thy elders and thy judges shall come forth, and they shall measure unto the cities which are round about him that is slain.

3. And it shall be, that the city which is next unto the slain man, even the elders of that city shall take an heifer which hath not been wrought with, and which hath not drawn in the yoke ;

4. And the elders of that city shall bring down the heifer unto a rough valley, which is neither eared nor sown, and shall strike off the heifer's neck there in the valley.

5. And the priests, the sons of Levi, shall come near; (for them the Lord thy God hath chosen to minister unto him, and to bless in the name of the Lord;) and by their word shall every controversy and every stroke be tried;

6. And all the elders of that city, that are next unto the slain man, shall wash their hands over the heifer that is beheaded in the valley.

7. And they shall answer and say, Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it.

8. Be merciful, O Lord, unto thy people Israel, whom thou hast redeemed, and lay not innocent blood unto thy people of Israel's charge. And the blood shall be forgiven them.

9. So shalt thou put away the guilt of innocent blood from among you, when thou shalt do that which is right in the sight of the Lord."-Deut. xxi. 1–9.

The ceremonies which have now been related, were not only a declaration of the innocence of the judges and elders, and of

the horrid nature of the murder; but an implicit declaration likewise of the punishment, which justly pertained to the person who had committed it.

CHAPTER IV.

ON MILITARY AFFAIRS.

§. 265. GENERAL view of MILITARY SCIENCE.

FROM the dissensions of individuals arose, in the progress of time, the strife of families, contests between tribes, and eventually the wars of nations. Those who came off conquerors in the wars which had thus been commenced, enriched themselves with plunder. This presented an incitement to those tribes and nations which were conscious of their superiority in point of power, to engage in war; and prepared the way for that ferocity and violence, to resist which the patriarchs after the flood round it necessary to arm their servants, and to be always in readiness to repel all attacks by force. The patriarchs, nevertheless, made it a point to act on principles of equity; they made treaties where they could; and where they could not, their resort was (clearly a very natural one) to extort respect, by rendering themselves formidable.

The increase of families, which enabled them to form themselves into tribes, rendered it no longer necessary to put in requisition the aid of servants, and to arm them for war; since every freeborn member of the community accustomed himself to arms, that he might take the field against the enemy.

Various implements of war are mentioned in the Pentateuch. At a subsequent period, the Hebrews, in their contests with the neighbouring nations, were sometimes beaten, and sometimes victorious; till at length, in the reign of David, they acquired such skill in the military art, together with such strength, as to give them a decided superiority over their competitors on the field of battle. David increased the standing army which Saul had introduced. Solomon introduced cavalry and chariots into the Hebrew army, and both were retained in the subsequent