a flight of chambers, some for bathing, some for anointing the body, and some to serve as wardrobes. The middle of these chambers was denominated eßetov, EPHEBIUM, [the place where the ephebi or youth exercised,] by which name the whole edifice was sometimes called.

The AREA under the open air or the open court, including the porticoes just mentioned, (one range of which, viz. that on the north side was double, was denominated the PALÆSTRA, #aλaíoTpa, in which were games and exercises, dancing and wrestling, throwing the quoit, and the combat with the cæstus. The whole edifice was sometimes called the PALESTRA.

The western part of the GYMNASIUM was an oblong, and was surrounded by a portico, in which the athletæ exercised in unpleasant weather. The porticoes for this purpose are called EUT, XYSTI, from which the other parts of the building denominated įvσta, XYSTA, differed in these particulars, viz.; they were surrounded with rows of trees, were not covered with a roof, and were used as places for promenading.

At the end of the western part of the GYMNASIUM, was the stadium. It was a large semicircle, an hundred and twenty-five geometrical paces long, and was furnished with seats, which ran around it, and ascended gradually one above the other for the accommodation of the spectators. The principal games in the STADIUM, were races on foot, on horseback, and with chariots.

The ATHLETE, after the fourth century before Christ, went wholly naked, as they found clothes an impediment to celerity of motion. There was this exception, those who threw the quoit or rode in the chariot, wore a sort of very light garment, Heb. xii. 1. The cÆSTUS, to which an allusion is made in 1 Cor. ix. 26, was a leathern strap, bound by the athletæ round the right hand. This strap was wide enough to receive a piece of iron or lead, which was rolled upon it, and was discharged, yμelew, with all the strength of the combatant against his adversary. It became the one against whom it was discharged to be watchful; and to avoid, if possible, the intended blow.

THE CHARIOT-RACE, which was run in the stadium, and from which Paul, in 1 Cor. ix. 24-27; Philip. iii. 11–14; 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8; borrows certain illustrations, was, as follows: Four chariots started at the same time for the goal, which was at the further extremity of the stadium. The charioteer who reached it first

was the conqueror. Other competitors presented themselves, and the course was run again by four at a time, as in the first instance. The one, who successively gained the victory over all that presented themselves, won the crown, which was woven of branches of various trees, and, though of small value in itself, was esteemed in the highest degree honourable. A crown of this kind, Spaßetov, was given, not only to those who came off victors in the chariot race, but to those also, who succeeded in contests of a different kind, 1 Cor. ix. 24; Phil. iii. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 8. Wherever the victor went, he received a branch of palm, Rev. vii. 9; he was robed in a splendid dress, and escorted with the highest honours to his city and his home.

The exercises, in which the ATHLETE engaged, were by no means trivial, or such as could be easily practised. In order to acquire a sufficient degree of strength, they took a considerable quantity of nourishment; their principal meal being in the evening. Their dinner was light, and they were confined to a particular diet. At first they were restricted to a little coarse bread, with ten dried figs, nuts, soft cheese, and herbs; but in progress of time, they were allowed meat of the most nourishing kind, which was roasted, and eaten with coarse unleavened bread. They were kept altogether from wine, and were not permitted the slightest intercourse with the other sex, not even so much as to look at them.

There were fixed regulations for the conduct of those who contended for the prize; and if any one violated these he could not be crowned as the victor. Hence it became necessary to appoint persons to see that the rules and regulations of the games were observed, and also umpires to award the victory, 2 Tim. ii. 5; iv. 8.

As the games, in which the ATHLETE exerted their skill and physical ability, were extremely popular among the Greeks and Romans, it is not at all surprising that they became objects of hatred and disgust to the greater part of the Jews; yet they had among themselves a sort of game, (different it is true, from those of the GYMNASIUM,) which was practised in Palestine, as late as the time of Jerome. This game consisted in lifting a stone; the one, who could lift it highest being the victor, Zech. xii. 3.

NOTE. THE THEATRE, introduced by Herod and his sons

into Palestine, was an edifice constructed in such a manner, as to describe the larger half of a circle. The games were exhibited in that part of it, where a line would have passed to enclose precisely a semicircle.

Amphi-theatres were two theatres united; they were, of course, of an oblong shape, and the games were exhibited in the centre of them. The seats, which extended round the interior of both theatre and amphitheatre, ascended gradually, one above another. These edifices were left open at the top, except in the later periods of the Roman empire, when there was some change in the style of their architecture. In case of great heat or rain, the opening above was covered with a piece of cloth of a close texture.

In these theatres, comedies and tragedies were acted; assemblies of the people were held, and ambassadors were received, Acts, xix. 29. Among the Romans, sports of various kinds were exhibited, mostly gymnastic exercises; but some of them of a very bloody character, inasmuch as criminals, condemned by the laws, and enemies captured in war, were compelled to fight until they were killed, either in their combats with wild beasts, or, with each other. Compare 1 Cor. iv. 9; and Heb. x. 33.

§. 285. OF ENCAMPMENTS.

,מַחֲנֶה, מַחֲנוֹת, מַחֲנִים ,The art of laying out an encampment

In re

appears to have been well understood in Egypt, long before the departure of the Hebrews from that country. It was there that Moses became acquainted with that mode of encamping, which, in the second chapter of Numbers, is prescribed to the Hebrews. In the encampment of the Israelites, to which we have alluded, it appears, that the holy tabernacle occupied the centre. ference to this circumstance, it may be remarked, that it is the common practice in the east for the prince or leader of a tribe to have his tent pitched in the centre of the others; and it ought not to be forgotten, that God, whose tent or palace was the holy tabernacle, was the prince, the leader of the Hebrews. The tents, nearest to the tabernacle, were those of the Levites, whose business it was to watch it in the manner of a pretorian guard. The family of Gershom pitched to the west, that of Kohath to the south, that of Merari to the north. The priests occupied a position to the east, opposite to the entrance of the tabernacle, Numb. i. 53; iii. 21-38. At some distance to the east, were

the tribes of Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun; on the south were those of Reuben, Simeon, and Gad; to the west were Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin; to the north, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali. The people were thus divided into four divisions three tribes to each; every division having its separate standard Each of the large family associations likewise, of which the different tribes were composed, had a separate standard, termed, in contradistinction from the other, nis; and every Hebrew was obliged to number himself with his particular division, and follow his appropriate standard. The Israelites, probably in forming their encampment at this time, imitated the method of the nomades, and formed it in such a manner as to exhibit a circular appearance. There is not, however, any proof, that this mode of encampment was especially followed, at any subsequent period.

We learn from 1 Sam. xxvi. 5, et seq. that there were no sentinels stationed during the night in the encampment of Saul; which was done, as we learn, in other instances, in case there was any danger, the sentinels relieving each other at stated intervals, Judg. vii. 19; 1 Sam. xiv. 16; xxvi. 14-17. In respect to this point, we may infer, moreover, from the fact of sentinels being kept perpetually upon the walls of the city in subsequent periods of the monarchy, that they certainly were not wanting in the camps.

Fires also were kept burning before encampments during the night. Fires of this kind were not the same, as some have asserted, with the pillar of fire which went before the Israelites in Arabia Petræa. See Numb. ix. 15-23.

Moses gives the following regulations in respect to the encampment in the wilderness, Numb. v. 1-4; Deut. xxiii. 10-15. I. That every unclean person shall live out of it.

II. [The second regulation, to which reference is here made, stands in the English version, as follows.] "Thou shalt have a paddle upon thy weapon; and it shall be, when thou wilt ease thyself abroad, thou shalt dig therewith, and shalt turn back, and cover that which cometh from thee. For the Lord thy God walketh in the midst of thy camp, to deliver thee, and to give up thine enemies before thee," etc. A practice of this kind is observed to this day among the Ottomans. See the third Epistle of Busbeque, p. 250.

§. 286. ON MILITARY MARCHES.

The same order was observed by the Hebrews in the wilderness, when on their march, as was practised by them when forming their encampment. As soon as the cloud ascended over the tabernacle, the priests sounded with the silver trumpets,

, Numb. ix. 15-23, a warning which is expressed in

Then .תָּקַע תְּרוּעָה and הֵרִיעַ תְּרוּעָה Hebrew by the phrases

Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, on the east, set forward. At the second sound of the trumpets, Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, on the south, followed. The march was next commenced by the Levites, who bore the parts of the tabernacle, and the ark of the covenant. They were followed, at the third sound of the trumpets, by Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, from the west, and, at the fourth, by Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, from the north, who brought up the rear, 2. Each one followed the standard of his particular corps and family.

When the cloud descended again, the encampment was formed in the order mentioned in the preceding section, Numb. ii. 1, 3, 10, 17, 18, 25, 31; x. 5—8, 23-28. That the Hebrews could not, at a subsequent period, after they had settled in Palestine, observe the same order in their military expeditions, which was observed by them while marching in the wilderness, is so evident that it is almost unnecessary to mention it.

§. 287. ON MILITARY STANDArds.

Of military standards, there were,

I. The Standard, denominated degel; one of which pertained to each of the four general divisions. The four standards of this name were large, and ornamented with colours in white, purple, crimson, and dark blue. The Jewish Rabbins assert, (founding their statement on Gen. xlix. 3, 9, 17, 22; which in this case is very doubtful authority,) that the first of these standards, viz. that of Judah, bore a lion; the second, or that of Reuben, bore a man; that of Ephraim, which was the third, displayed the figure of a bull; while that of Dan, which was the fourth, exhibited the representation of cherubim. The standards were worked with embroidery.

II. The Standard, called oth. The ensign of this name belonged to the separate classes of families. Perhaps it was, ori

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