ginally merely a pole or spear, to the end of which a bunch of leaves was fastened, or something similar. Subsequently, it may have been a shield, suspended on the elevated point of such pole or spear, as was sometimes done among the Greeks and Romans. III. The Standard, called Dnes. This standard was not, like the others, borne from place to place. It appears from Numb. xxi. 8, 9; that it was a long pole, fixed into the earth. A flag was fastened to its top, which was agitated by the wind, and seen at a great distance, Jer. iv. 6, 21; li. 12, 27; Ezek. xxvii. 7. In order to render it visible, as far as possible, it was erected on lofty mountains, and was in this way used as a signal to assemble soldiers. It no sooner made its appearance on such an elevated position, than the war-cry was uttered, and the trumpets were blown, Isaiah, v. 26; xiii. 2; xviii. 3; xxx. 17; xlix. 22; lxii. 10-13.

NOTE. It has been already remarked, that the priests blew alarms and warnings with silver trumpets. It may further be observed, that, in very many instances, such notices were given by means of horns, which were also used in war by many other nations, Josh. vi. 4, 5; Judg. iii. 27; vi. 34; vii. 18; 1 Sam. xiii. 3; 2 Sam. ii. 28; xviii. 16; xx. 1, 22; Isaiah, xviii. 3; Jer. iv, 5, 15, 21; vi. 1, 17; xlii. 14; li. 27; Hos. v. 8; viii. 1.

Previously to commencing war, the heathen nations consulted oracles, soothsayers, necromancers, and also the lot, which was ascertained by shooting arrows of different colours, 1 Sam. xxviii. 1 -10; Isaiah, xli. 21-24; Ezek. xxi. 21, 22, 23. The Hebrews, to whom things of this kind were interdicted, were in the habit, in the early part of their history, of inquiring of God by means of Urim and Thummim, Judg. i. 1; xx. 27, 28; 1 Sam. xxiii. 2; xxviii. 6; xxx. 8.!

After the time of David, the kings who reigned in Palestine consulted according to their characters and feelings, sometimes true prophets, and sometimes false, in respect to the issue of war, 1 Kings, xxii. 6-13; 2 Kings, xix. 2, et seq. 20, et seq. Sacrifices were also offered, in reference to which the soldiers were said "to consecrate themselves to the war," Isaiah, xiii. 3; Jer.

vi. 4; li. 27; Joel, iii. 9; Obad. 1. There are instances of formal declarations of war, and sometimes, of previous negotiations, Judg. xi. 12-28; 2 Kings, xiv. 8; 2 Chron. xxv. 17; but ceremonies of this kind were by no means always observed, 2 Sam. x. 1—12. When the enemy made a sudden incursion; or when the war was unexpectedly commenced, the alarm was given to the people by messengers rapidly sent forth; by the sound of warlike trumpets; by standards floating on the loftiest places; by the clamour of many voices on the mountains, that echoed from summit to summit, Judg iii. 27; vi. 34; vii. 22; 1 Sam. xi. 7, 8; Is. v. 26; xiii. 2; xviii. 3; xxx. 17; lxii. 10. Military expeditions commonly commenced in the spring, 2 Sam. xi. 1, and were continued during the summer; but in the winter the soldiers went into quarters. There is no mention made in Scripture of a war being settled by a combat between two individuals. In the case of David and Goliath, it is true, there was a challenge and a combat; but there was no previous agreement between the two armies, which prevented the further effusion of blood.

War is considered by the orientals, as a judgment sent from heaven. It is God who grants victory to those who are in the right; but sends defeat upon those who are in the wrong, 2 Chron. xx. 12; Is. lxvi. 15, 16. The belief that God fights for the good against the wicked, is frequently discovered in the Old Testament, and, not only in the Hebrew, but also in the Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldaic, words which originally signify justice, innocence, or uprightness, signify likewise victory; and words, the usual meaning of which is injustice or wickedness, also mean defeat or overthrow. The same may be said in respect to words, which signify help or aid, [for instance ninasmuch as the nation which conquered, received aid from God, and God was its helper, 1 Sam. xiv. 45; 2 Kings, v. 1; Ps. vii. 9; ix. 9; xx. 6, 7; xxvi. 1; xxxv. 24; xliii. 1; xliv. 5—7; lxxvi. lxxviii. 9; lxxxii. 8; Is. lix. 17; Habak. iii. 8.

§. 289. PREPARATIONS FOR BATTLE.

Before battle the various kinds of arms were arranged in the best order; the shields were anointed, and the soldiers refreshed themselves by taking food, lest they should become weary and faint under the pressure of their labours, Is. xxi. 5; Jer. xlvi. 3, 4. The soldiers, more especially the kings and generals, except

when they wished to remain unknown, (1 Kings, xxii. 30—34,) were clothed in splendid habiliments, which are denominated, (Ps. cx. 3,) the sacred dress. The Hebrew words for

. מַעֲרֶכֶת, מַעֲרָכָה, מַעֲרָךְ, נֶשֶׁה an army in battle array are

The phrase, which is used to express the action of thus setting an army in array, is ; it occurs in Gen. xiv. 8, and very frequently afterwards; but we are left in some uncertainty respecting its precise import. There is evidence, however, for stating thus far, viz. that the army was probably divided into the centre, and left and right wings, inasmuch as there is frequent mention made of, i. e. leaders of a third part, Gen. xiv. 14, 15; Judg. vii. 16-19; Exod. xiv. 7; xv. 4. That the army was so arranged as to form a phalanx, there can be little doubt. Bodies of men drawn up in military order, in some instances, especially if danger pressed hard upon them, performed very long marches. This was the case with the Hebrews when they departed from Egypt, Exod. xiii. 18; comp. Josh. i. 14; iv. 12; Judg. vii. 11. While the approaching army was at a distance, there was nothing discernible but a cloud of dust; as they came nearer the glittering of their arms could be discovered, and at length the manner in which they were drawn up might be distinctly seen, Is. xiv. 31; Ezek. xxvi. 10. Xenophon in Expedit. Cyri I. 8, 5.

It was the duty of the priests before the commencement of the battle, to exhort the Hebrews to exhibit that courage which was required by the exigency of the occasion. [The words which they used were as follows: "Hear, O Israel, you approach this day unto battle against your enemies: let not your hearts faint ; fear not, and do not tremble; neither be ye terrified because of them. For the Lord your God is he, that goeth with you, to fight for you against your enemies, to save you,”] Deut. xx. 2, et seq. In more recent times exhortations to the soldiers of this kind were given by kings and generals, 2 Chron. xiii. 4, et seq.; xx. 20. In some cases sacrifices were offered, either by a prophet, or by some other person whilst he was present, 1 Sam. xiii. 9-12.

The last ceremony previous to an engagement, was the sounding, ., of the sacred trumpets by the priests, Numb. x. 9, 10; 2 Chron. xiii. 12—14; 1 Macc. iii. 54.

§. 290. CONCERNING THE BATTLE.

The Greeks, whilst they were yet three or four furlongs distant from the enemy, commenced the song of war; something resembling which occurs in 2 Chron. xx. 21. They then raised a shout, àñañáÇe, which was also done among the Hebrews,

;52 .Josh. vi. 20; 1 Sam. xvii ,תְּרוּעַת מִלְחָמָה הָרְעַ, צָרַח

Is. v. 29, 30; xvii. 12; Jer. iv. 19; xxv. 30. The war-shout in Judg. vii. 20, was as follows; "The sword of the Lord and of Gideon,”. In some instances, it was probably a mere yell or inarticulate cry. The march of armies, with their weapons, chariots, and trampling coursers, occasioned a great and confused noise, which is compared by the prophets to the roaring of the ocean, and the dashing of the mountain torrents, Is. xvii. 12, 13; xxviii. 2. The descriptions of battles in the Bible are very brief; yet although there is nothing especially said respecting the order of battle; there is scarcely a doubt that the light-armed troops, as among other nations, made the onset; and that the main body following them with their spears extended, made a rapid and impetuous rush upon the enemy. Hence swiftness of foot in a soldier is praised as a virtue, not only in Homer, but in the Bible. 2 Sam. ii. 18-24; 1 Chron. xii. 8; Ps. xviii. 33.

It often happened in battle, that soldier contended with soldier, and hand to hand; and, as in contests of this kind the victory depended on personal strength and activity, the animosity of the combatants naturally became much excited, and the slaughter, in proportion to the whole number, immense. It was a common stratagem among the Hebrews to place a part of the army in ambush, Gen. xiv. 14-16; Josh. viii. 12; Judg. xx. 39; still although it was a common opinion in early times that deception and art, of any kind, however unjust, might be lawfully employed against an enemy, there is no instance of such deception recorded in the Bible, except the one in Gen. xxxiv. 25-31; and this is by no means spoken of with praise. If, in reference to this statement, the conduct of Jael should be adduced, (Judg. iv. 17-22,) it should be considered that her daring deed could hardly be deemed a stratagem; and, at the worst, was only pursuing a wrong course amid a collision of opposite duties.

The Hebrews, when about to attack an enemy, were elated, if

they saw a storm arising, from the hope which they indulged, that God was coming in the clouds to their assistance, Josh. x. 12-15; Judg. v. 20, 21; 1 Sam. vii. 10; Habak. iii. 11.

The attack made by the orientals in battle, always has been, and is to this day, characterised for the violence and impetuosity of the onset; and if the front of the enemy remained unbroken, they retreated; but soon returned to the charge with renewed ardour. The Roman armies generally stood firm and preserved their order of battle, notwithstanding the violence of this shock; and this practice seems alluded to in the following passages, viz. 1 Cor. xvi. 13; Gal. v. 1; Eph. vi. 14; Philip. i. 27; 1 Thess. iii. 8; 2 Thess. ii. 15.

§. 291. ON SIeges.

In case an enemy threatened to attack a city, guards of vigilant and sedulous watchmen were stationed in towers, and on the tops of mountains, who made known by signs, or by messengers, whatever they had observed. At Jerusalem, in an extremity of this kind, the fountains beyond the walls of the city were filled up, Is. xxii. 9-11. Cities were taken by sudden and violent onsets, by stratagem, by treason, or, less expeditiously, by means of famine. When there were no machines to assist in the siege and to break down the walls, it was much protracted; indeed under such circumstances a siege was not had recourse to, except as a last resort. When a city was threatened, it was in the first place invited to surrender, bus 77, Deut. xx. 10; Is. xxxvi. 1-20; xxxvii. 8–20. If the besieged had resolved to capitulate, the principal men of the city went out to the enemy's camp, in order to effect the object. Hence, "to go forth," or come out," in certain connections, mean the same as to surrender by capitulation, 1 Sam. xi. 3, 10, 11; 2 Kings, xviii. 31; xxiv. 12; Jer. xxi. 9; xxxviii. 17, 18; 1 Macc. vi. 49.

In the most ancient ages, the enemy surrounded the city with a band of men; sometimes only one, at most only two or three deep, and effected their object by assault; hence the very common phrases," to encamp against a city," or "to pitch against" and "to straiten it," Josh. x. 5; Judg. ix. 50; 1 Sam. xi. 1; Kings, xxv. 1; Is. xxix. 3.