paces in diameter, where the ground had been levelled and beaten down, Gen. 1. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 24; Judg. vi. 37, etc. The collection of sheaves on the floor for threshing, was used figuratively to denote reservation for future destruction, Mic. iv. 13; Isaiah, xxi. 10; Jer. li. 33.

§. 64. THRESHING.

At first the grain was beaten out with sticks. Afterwards this method was continued only with the smaller kinds of grain, and in threshing small quantities, Ruth, ii. 17; Isaiah, xxviii. 27. At a later period, it was trodden out by the hoofs of oxen, Isaiah, xxviii. 28; Deut. xxv. 4; or beaten out with machines similar to those which are still used in the east. All these modes of threshing are called . Three kinds of instruments, however, are mentioned. The first, called '7, is not well known. Perhaps it was a square piece of wood, armed on the lower side with sharp stones. The second, called 27, was composed of four beams joined so as to form a square, between which were set three revolving cylinders, each one of which was furnished with three iron wheels, having teeth like a saw. The third, Y, was formed like the preceding, except that the cylinders were not furnished with iron wheels, but with sharp pieces of iron six inches long and three broad. Possibly this may be the same kind with the first. These machines, upon which the driver sat, were fastened to the oxen, and were driven round upon the sheaves, which were broken open and deposited in the circle of the area to the height of six or eight feet. In this manner the grain was beaten out of the ears, and the straw itself broken in pieces, which in this state was called 1. A man followed the machine with a wooden instrument, and placed the grain in order. Threshing is a figurative expression for a great slaughter; and if the machine is called new, when it is usually the sharpest, it denotes a slaughter proportionably greater. The victors are sometimes represented as a huge machine, that threshes and crumbles even mountains and hills, like straw. But the conquered are always prostrated upon the earth, like the sheaves on the threshing floor, and ground to powder by the instruments, Judg. viii. 7; 2 Sam. xii. 31; Amos, i. 3; Micah, iv. 12, 13. In Deut. xxv. 4, it was forbidden to muzzle the ox that was treading out the corn, comp. 1 Cor. ix. 9; 1 Tim. v. 18;

and the cattle which drew the threshing machine were also allowed to feed upon the corn. In reference to this circumstance,

threshing denoted figuratively a splendid style of living.

§. 65. VENTILATION.

The grain being threshed, was thrown into the middle of the threshing floor; it was then exposed with a wooden fork to a gentle wind, Jer. iv. 11, 12, which separated the broken straw and chaff, so that the grain and clods of earth with grain adhering to them, and the ears not thoroughly threshed, fell upon the ground. The clods of earth, as is still customary in the east, were collected, broken in pieces, and separated from the grain by a sieve. Sifting was accordingly used as a symbol of misfortune and destruction, Amos, ix. 9; Luke, xxii. 31. The heap thus winnowed, which still contained many ears that were broken, but not fully threshed out, was again spread on the threshing floor, and several yoke of oxen driven over it for the purpose of treading out the remainder of the grain. At length the grain, mingled with the chaff, was again exposed to the wind by a fan, which was called, тúy, which bore off the chaff, so that the pure wheat fell upon the floor, Ruth, iii. 2; Isaiah, xxx. 24. This operation was a symbol of the dispersion of a vanquished people; also of the separation between the righteous and the wicked, Job, xxi, 18; Ps. i. 4; xxxv. 5; lxxxiii. 13; Isaiah, xli. 15, 16; Jer. xiii. 24; xv. 7; li. 2; Matt. iii. 12; Luke, iii. 17. The scattered straw, as much at least as was required for the manufacturing of bricks and the fodder of cattle, was collected, but the residue, with the chaff and stubble, as has been stated above, was reduced to ashes; which afford a figurative illustration of the destruction of wicked men, Isaiah, v. 24; xlvii. 14; Jer. xv. 7; Joel, ii. 5; Obad. 18; Nahum, i. 10; Malachi, iv. 1; Matt. iii. 12. Originally corn was kept in subterranean storehouses, and even caverns; but in progress of time granaries were erected, both in Egypt and Palestine; see Gen. xli. 35; Exod. i. 11; 1 Chron. xxvii. 25.

§. 66. OF VINES AND VINEYARDS.

Among other objects of agriculture, the vine may justly be considered worthy of particular attention.

In some parts of the east, particularly on the southern shore

of the Caspian sea, grapes of a pleasant taste grow spontaneously, which naturally induced men to encourage their growth by cultivation. Hence mention is made of wine at an early period, Gen. ix. 21; xiv. 18; xix. 32–35; xxvii. 25; xlix. 11, 12. The Hebrews were no less diligent in the culture of vineyards, than of fields for grain; and the soil of Palestine produced great quantities of grapes, from which excellent wine was made. The mountains of Engedi, the valley of salt-pits, and the valleys of Eshcol and Sorek, were celebrated for their grapes. Sorek, in-✔ deed, was not only the proper name of a valley, but also of a very fruitful vine, which bore small, but very delicious grapes. In the kingdom of Morocco at the present time, the same vine is called Serki, see Pliny, xvii. 35, no. 5. In Hos. xiv. 7, the wine of Mount Libanus is extolled. In Palestine even at the present day, the clusters of the vine occasionally weigh twelve pounds each, and their immense size is mentioned Numb. xiii. 23. The grapes of Palestine are mostly red or black; whence originated the phrase, " blood of grapes," Y, Gen. xlix. 11; Deut. xxxii. 14; Isaiah, xxvii. 2. Some vines in eastern countries, when supported by trees, grow to a great height and magnitude; of such are made the staves and sceptres of kings.

The vine growing spontaneously, of which we have spoken, is not that which in 2 Kings, iv. 39, is called the "wild vine," 19, for that (as the Vulgate rightly translates) is the colocynth or wild gourd, which in Jer. ii. 21, is called, the degenerate plant of a strange vine. The vine of Sodom, 12, is the solanum melangenæ, the fruit of which, as was said above, is called in, or the poisonous clusters.

§. 67. SITUATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF VINEYARDS. Vineyards were generally planted on the declivity of hills, Is. v. 1; Jer. xxxi. 5; Joel, iii. 18; Amos, ix. 13; Micah, i. 6. According to Strabo and Pliny, there were also fine vineyards in marshy lands on which the vines grew to a great height. Of these vines were fabricated the staves and sceptres spoken of above, whilst the branches of other vines were destined to be fuel for the flames, Ezek. xv. 2-6; xvii. 5-8; xix. 10-12.

Vines were commonly propagated by means of suckers. Pliny (xvii. 35, no. 6,) says, vines were of four kinds; namely, those which ran on the ground; those that grew upright without sup

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port; those which adhered to a single prop; and those that covered a square frame. It is not necessary to treat of all these; it may suffice merely to mention that Pliny is by no means correct, when he says the custom prevailed in Syria and all Asia, of letting the vines run on the ground. This indeed accords with Ezek. xvii. 6, 7; but that vines frequently grew to a great height, being supported by trees and props, or standing upright of themselves, is proved by the proverbial phrase, which so often occurs, of sitting under one's own vine and fig tree, namely, enjoying a prosperous and happy life, 1 Kings, iv. 25; Hos. ii. 12; Micah, iv. 4; Zech. iii. 10. The prohibition, Deut. xxii. 9, to sow vineyards with divers seeds, and the command, that what was thus sown should be given to the priests, are not to be understood of the vines, but of herbs, which were sown in the intervals between them. Vineyards were protected by a hedge or wall, Numb. xxii. 24; Psalms, lxxx. 12; Prov. xxiv. 31; Isaiah, v. 5; Jer. xlix. 3: Neh. iv. 3; Matt. xxi. 33. In the vineyards were erected towers, Isaiah, v. 2; Matt. xxi. 33; which, at the present time in eastern countries, are thirty feet square, and eighty feet high. These towers were for watchmen, who defended the vineyards from thieves, and from animals, especially dogs and foxes, Cant. i. 6; ii. 15. By the law in Deut. xxiii. 24, the passing traveller was allowed to eat his fill of grapes, but not to carry them away in his vessel.

§. 68. CULTURE OF VINEYARDS.

The manner of trimming the vine, and also the singular instrument of the vine-dresser, 22, were well known even in the time of Moses, Lev. xxv. 3, 4; compare Isaiah, ii. 4; v. 6; xviii. 5; Joel, iii. 10; Micah, iv. 3. A vintage from new vineyards was forbidden until the expiration of three years, and the grapes of the fourth year were consecrated to sacred purposes; the vines therefore, without doubt, during these first years, were so pruned, as that few sprouts remained. In the fifth year when they were first profaned,, namely, generally used, they were become strong and luxuriant. Pruning at three several times, namely, in March, April, and May, is mentioned not only by Bochart, but also by Pliny; and Homer speaks of it as a practice well known, Odyss. vii. 120. The Hebrews dug their vineyards, and collected the stones, Isaiah, v. 2. The young vines, unless trees were near,

were supported by stakes; and around those vines which ran on the ground were dug narrow trenches in a circular form, to prevent the wandering shoots from mingling with each other. These practices in the cultivation of the vine produced those allegories, which are drawn from vineyards, Psalms, lxxx. 8—13; Isaiah, v. 1-7; xxvii. 2—6; Matt. xxi. 33—41.

§. 69. VINTAGE and Wine-press.

The vintage commences in Syria about the middle of September, and continues until the middle of November. But grapes in Palestine, we are informed, were ripe sometimes as early as June and July; which probably arose from a triple pruning, in which case there was also a third vintage. The first vintage was usually in August, which month in Numb. xiii. 20, is called " ; the second in September, and the third in October. Grapes sometimes remained on the vines until November and December. The Hebrews were required to leave gleanings for the poor, Levit. xix. 10.

The vintage was a season of joy, Judges, ix. 27; Is. xvi. 10; Jer. xxv. 30; xlviii. 33. Amidst shouts and rejoicings the grapes were plucked off and carried to the wine-press,, Anyós, which was in the vineyard, Isaiah, v. 2; Hag. ii. 16; Zech. xiv. 10; Matt. xxi. 33; Rev. xiv. 19, 20. The presses were either formed of stones and covered with plaster, or hewn out of a large rock. There were two divisions in each. The upper receptacle, called 2, as it is constructed at the present time in Persia, is nearly eight feet in length and breadth, and four feet high. Into this the grapes are thrown and trodden out by five men. The juice flows into the lower receptacle, called, through a grated aperture, which is made in the side near the bottom of the upper one.

It

The treading of the wine-press was laborious, and the garments of the persons employed in it were stained with the red juice of the grapes; yet the employment was a joyful one. was performed with singing, accompanied with musical instruments; and the treaders shouted as they jumped, exclaiming, 77, Isaiah, xvi. 9, 10; Jer. xxv. 30; xlviii. 32, 33. Figuratively, vintage, gleaning, and treading the wine-press, signified battles and great slaughter, Isaiah, xvii. 6; lxiii. 1-3; Jer. xlix, 9; Lam. i. 15. The must, or new wine, as is still cus