PELVIS.

PEMBROKE-PEMBROKESHIRE

pubic arch is wider by about ten degrees; the sacrum also is wider and less curved.

It is worthy of notice that the pelvis of the negro is smaller in all its dimensions than that of the European, and presents a partial approximation to that of the monkey (fig. III.), especially in the deficiency of its width. This difference much very more obvious in the male than in the female negro; and parturition in the black races is facilitated both

Fig. III.

Pelvis, with two Lumbar Vertebiæ, of a large Monkey; Transverse diameter, 2.7, and antero-posterior diameter, 3 inches.-(From Humphry.)

is

by the sacrum being less
curved, and by the foetal
head being of smaller
dimensions. In the apes
and monkeys, which
approach most nearly to
man, the pelvis is longer
and narrower, and much

less curved than in the human subject. In other mammals, the differences are for the most part the same in kind, but greater in degree. In many of the Cheiroptera (bats) and Insectivora (as the mole), the pubic bones are only loosely connected by a small ligament, or there is a complete opening between the bones (as occurs normally in birds), an arrangement by which the act of parturition in these animals is much facilitated. The pelvic bones are very simple in the Cetacea, in some cases being represented by two simple elongated bones lying near the anus, and converging from opposite sides (a transverse connecting piece being sometimes but not always present); in others, by a small V-shaped bone, while sometimes (as in Manatus) they seem to be entirely wanting. The additional pelvic bones in the non-placental mammals have been already noticed in the articles on the MARSUPIATA and MONOTREMATA. In the echidna (belonging to the latter order), the acetabulum is perforated, as occurs normally in birds. In birds, in addition to the peculiarity just noticed, we find the pelvis open in front (or, more correctly, inferiorly), there being no union of the pubic bones in any bird except the ostrich. This normal incompleteness of the pelvic ring is obviously for the purpose of facilitating the passage of the eggs. It is unnecessary to trace the further degradation of the pelvic bones in the Reptiles and Fishes.

PEMBROKE, a seaport of South Wales, a market-town, and municipal and parliamentary borough, in the county of the same name, occupies a rocky ridge on a navigable creek of Milford On the Haven, 7 miles south-east of Milford. extremity of the ridge on which the town is built, are the remains of its once extensive castle. In 1648, the castle was beleaguered by Cromwell, and Within this taken after a siege of six weeks. ancient stronghold, Henry VII. was born in 1457. The keep, the principal building in the inner court, is 75 feet high, and 163 feet in circumference, and is surmounted by a cone-shaped roof of masonry, still perfect. Pater, otherwise called Pembroke Dock, which is rather a ship-building than a commercial centre, is two miles from the town, and has 12 building-slips and a dry-dock. The entire naval establishment einbraces an area of 80 acres, and is surrounded by a high wall, flanked by two martello towers. Within P. are St Michael's, a church of Norman date, and numerous ecclesiastical and educational institutions. Pop. (1861) of parliamentary borough,

which is co-extensive with the municipal borough,
15,071. P. unites with Tenby, Milford, and Wiston
in sending a member to parliament.

PEMBROKE COLLEGE, Oxford. BROADGATES HALL, a place of education, originally belonging in part to St Frydeswyde's Priory, and in part to the monastery of Abingdon, was, on the dissolution of the religious houses, given to Christ Church by Henry VIII. In 1629, it was made a college by James I., and took its name from the Earl of Pembroke, then chancellor of the university. By the ordinances of the commissioners under 17 and 18 Vict. c. 81, the constitution of the college is now as follows: There are to be not less than 10 fellow

ships, open to all, not to exceed £200 a year in
value, so long as the number of the fellowships is
less than 16. There are not to be less than 10
incorporated scholarships, value £50 a year, and
rooms free; of these, 5 are open, 5 filled up from
Abingdon School. There are besides 11 other
scholarships, subject to various conditions.
college presents to 8 benefices, of which 6 have been
purchased since 1812.

This

She was

PEMBROKE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, was founded in 1347 by Mary de St Paul, the widow of Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke. maid, wife, and widow all in one day, her husband being slain at a tilting-match held in honour of her nuptials. On this sad event, she sequestered herself from all worldly delights, and bequeathed her estate to pious uses. Henry VI. was so liberal a beneThere are 16 fellowships and 24 factor to this college as to obtain the name of a second founder. scholarships of different values.

PEMBROKESHIRE, a maritime county of South Wales, and the westernmost county of the Principality, is bounded on the S. by the Bristol Channel, and on the W. and N. by St George's Channel. Area, 627 square miles, or 401,691 acres. Pop. (1861) 96,278. The river Teivy separates the county on the north-east from that of Cardigan. On the north are Newport and Fishguard Bays, the latter 3 miles in width, from 30 to 70 feet in depth, a with good anchoring-ground. Off St David's Head, on the west coast, are a number of rocky islets, called the Bishop and his Clerks. St Bride's Bay, the widest inlet, is 8 miles in width, and has an inland sweep of 7 miles. Milford Haven (q. v.) is the most important estuary. The shores on the south are wild and inhospitable, and fronted by high precipitous cliffs. The surface is undulating; green hills alternate with fertile valleys. The principal elevations occur in the Precelly Hills, which traverse the north of the county from east to west, and rise in their highest summit to the height of 1754 feet. The rivers of the greatest importance are the Eastern and Western Cleddau, which unite and form a navigable portion of Milford Haven. The climate is None of the rivers, of which the Western Cleddau is the principal, are important. mild, but damp in the south of the county; while in the north, the temperature is considerably lower. There are excellent and productive soils in the south, and along the north-west coast the barley districts are famous; but the land on the Precelly Mountains and in the coal districts is inferior Coal, slate, lead, and iron are the only minerals worked.

The county is penetrated by the great coal-field of South Wales, which, entering from the east, narrows as it approaches St Bride's Bay. The coal, which is anthracite, and is contained in beds of shale and sandstone, occurs in seams, varying in thickness from a few inches to 6 feet, and someOats, barley, and potatoes are the times more. principal crops. The county returns one member

367

PEMMICAN-PEN.

to parliament. The chief towns are Haverfordwest, by removing this great defect, gave a stimulus to St Davids, Pembroke, and Tenby.

PE'MMICAN. This was originally a North American Indian preparation only, but it was introduced into the British navy victualling-yards, in order to supply the arctic expeditions with an easily. preserved food, containing the largest amount of nutriment in the smallest space. As made by the Indians, it consists of the lean portions of venison dried by the sun or wind, and then pounded into a paste, and tightly pressed into cakes; sometimes a few fruits of Amelanchier ovata are added, to improve the flavour. It will keep for a very long time uninjured. That made for the arctic voyagers was chiefly of beef. In making pemmican, it is necessary to remove the fat completely.

PE'MPHIGUS, or PO'MPHOLYX, belongs to that order of skin-diseases which is characterised by an eruption of large vesicles, filled with serous fluid, and known as bulla. The disease occurs both in the acute and in the chronic form. In a mild case of acute pemphigus, bullæ, or blisters, from the size of a pea to that of a chestnut appear in succession (chiefly on the extremities), and having continued three or four days, break, form a thin scab, and soon heal, unaccompanied with febrile or inflammatory symptoms. In severe cases, there is considerable constitutional disturbance; the bullæ are larger, and the scabs heal with difficulty. The chronic form differs mainly from the acute by its prolonged continuance. The acute variety chiefly affects children, and has been ascribed to dentition, errors of diet, &c.; while the chronic form chiefly attacks aged persons, and is probably due to debility and impaired nutrition. The acute form usually requires nothing but cooling medicines and diet, and mild local dressings, such as simple cerate, to protect the raw surfaces from exposure to the air. In the chronic form, a nutritious diet, with the judicious use of tonics (iron, bark, &c.), is most commonly successful. In obstinate cases, arsenic is sometimes

of use.

PEN, an instrument for writing with a fluid. In ancient times, a kind of reed (Lat. Calamus) was chiefly used, though sometimes the letters were painted with a fine hair-pencil, as among the Chinese at the present day. Quill-pens (see QUILLS) probably came into use after the introduction of modern paper. The English name pen is from Lat. penna, a feather; but the old form of penna was pesna or petna (= Gr. peteron), from the root pet, to fly; and just as Lat. ped is identical with Eng. foot (see letter F), so petna or peteron corresponds to feather (Ger. feder). During last century, many efforts were made to improve the quill-pen, the great defect of which was its speedy injury from use, and the consequent trouble of frequent mending; moreover, even the most skilful maker could not insure uniformity of quality, and any variation affected the writer's work. These efforts were chiefly directed to fitting small metal or even ruby points to the nib of the quill-pen; but the delicacy of fitting was so great, that but very little success attended the experiments. At the beginning of this century, pens began to be made wholly of metal; they consisted of a barrel of very thin steel, and were cut and slit so as to resemble the quill-pen as closely as possible. They were, however, very indifferent, and being dear (the retail price at first was half-acrown, and subsequently sixpence), they made but little way; their chief fault was hardness, which produced a disagreeable scratching of the paper. In 1820, Mr Joseph Gillott, who dealt in the metal pens then made, hit upon an improvement, which,

the manufacture, which has caused it to be developed
to an extent truly marvellous. This consisted in
making three slits instead of the single one formerly
used, and by this means much greater softness and
flexibility were acquired. Mr Gillott also introduced
machinery for the purpose of carrying out his
improvements, and thereby so reduced the cost of
production, that he was enabled to sell his im-
proved pens in 1821 at £7, 4s. per gross, which
was then considered a remarkable success. Better
pens are now sold at twopence per gross by the
same manufacturer; or, in other words, 864 pens
for the same price as one pen in 1821. Nor is this
to be wondered at, when we are acquainted with
the wonderful ingenuity of the machinery by
which it is effected. The lowest-priced pens are
made almost entirely by machinery, but the better
ones require much hand-labour for their completion;
nevertheless, in the works of Mr Gillott alone, who
is only one of several large manufacturers in Bir-
mingham, the annual production is now nearly
150,000,000 pens, requiring a supply of five tons per
week of the fine sheet-steel made for the purpose in
Sheffield, a portion of which is returned as scrap or
waste for re-manufacture. From Sheffield the steel
is sent in sheets about eight feet long by three feet
broad; it is prepared from the best iron, generally
Swedish bloom. The manufacturer then prepares it
by dipping for a short time in dilute sulphuric acid,
which removes the scale or black surface; the acid
itself is also carefully removed by immersion in
clean water; the sheets are then passed backwards
and forwards through
a rolling-mill with
smooth rollers, which
reduces the steel to
the exact thickness
required, and gives it
greater compactness;
it is next slit into
strips of various widths
according to the kind
of pen to be made; for
the ordinary kind its
width is seen in fig. 1.
This is then passed
through a cutting-
machine, which rapidly
punches out pieces of
the shape shewn in
fig. 2, and in the order
shewn in fig. 1, which
is a portion of the
strip with the pieces
or blanks, as they are
called, cut out; that
which is represented
is the waste or scrap
previously referred to. The blanks are now passed
through a succession of operations, each conducted
by a separate person: women or girls are chiefly
employed. The first process is called slitting; they
are passed one by one into a cutting-machine worked
by a small hand-lever, which makes the two side
slits, as seen in fig. 3. The second process, called
piercing, is performed by a similar machine or hand-
press, in which, however, only one punch acts, and
that cuts out the small hole seen in fig. 4. The
repeated rolling and stamping of the metal has by
this time made it hard and brittle, and it is neces-
sary to anneal it, for which purpose some thousands
of the slit and pierced blanks are put into an iron
box, and placed in the fire for a time, which softens
them considerably; this is the third process. When
cold, another operator receives them, and with

Fig. L

PEN HOLDERS-PENALTY.

another hand-press and a punch stamps or marks, as it is called, the name of the maker, fig. 5, which constitutes the fourth process. The fifth is somewhat similar, and is sometimes omitted; it consists

0000

CILLOTT'S

in placing it under another press, which has a punch and die for embossing any ornamental mark. The sixth process, called raising, consists in passing it into another press, which has a sinker and grooved die, as in fig. 6. The flat blank a is pushed under

Fig. 6.

the sinker c, is pressed by the action of the lever into
the groove d, and comes out with its edges curved
up, as in b. The seventh process consists in harden-
ing, which is done by placing the pens in an iron
box or muffle, and when they are at a red heat,
throwing them into oil; this renders them exceed-
ingly brittle and hard, too much so, indeed, for they
have now to pass through the eighth or tempering
process, which brings them to the required temper
or hardness and elasticity. The ninth operation is
Scouring; this consists in putting a large number
into a tin cylinder, which is kept revolving by
machinery ; sand and coarse emery-
powder are mixed with them; and
the friction of these materials and of
the pens themselves cleanses them
from all impurities, and brings out
the natural colour of the metal. The
tenth and eleventh processes consist
in grinding the outside of the nib,
first lengthwise (fig. 7), and then
crosswise (fig. 8), which are done by
different persons at separate grinding-
wheels. Next follows the most im-
portant operation, constituting the
twelfth process or slitting-that is,
making the central slit, upon the nicety of which
the whole value of the pen depends. This is
done in a hand-press similar to the others, but
the cutting part consists of two chisels, one
fixed on the table, the other coming down on

7

336

8

The operator the depression of the lever, and so accurately adjusted as to just clear each other. then skilfully holds the pen lengthwise on the fixed chisel, and brings down the movable one so as to effect the beautifully clean cut which constitutes so important a feature in the manufacture. Two other processes, the thirteenth and fourteenth, finish the series: the first is colouring, by heating them in a revolving cylinder over a charcoal stove, which gives them a blue or yellowish colour, according to the time employed; and the last is varnishing them with a varnish composed of lac and naphtha. In the works of Messrs Gillott, from inspection of which we have gathered these facts, there are 400 women and 100 men employed, and the daily produce is enormous: a clever girl will cut out 14,000 pens per day, and a good slitter will slit 28,000. Besides the kind specially described above, many other forms are made, especially the large and small barrel pens; but the processes are all the same, or are modifications of those described. Gold pens are extensively made in Birmingham, and as they resist the corrosive action of the ink, they are very durable; their durability is also greatly increased by the ingenious but difficult process of soldering on to the points of the nib minute particles of iridium, which, from their extreme hardness, The manufacture of resist wear for many years. iridium-pointed pens is extensively carried on in the city of New York, where the process is said to have been first brought to perfection.

PEN HOLDERS are small turned sticks, usually of cedar, and generally with a steel cylinder to fix the pen. They are used only for metal pens, and are now made by machinery, which is so ingenious, that it turns the cedar, previously cut into square sticks, round, often in a spiral or otherwise ornamental style, cuts them to the required length, and polishes and varnishes them.

PENAL SERVITUDE is a sentence for criminal offences, which was recently introduced in lieu of the sentence of transportation beyond the seas. See CONVICT; TRANSPORTATION.

PENALTY is a sum of money declared by some statute or contract to be payable by one who com. mits an offence or breach of contract. It is considered as a kind of punishment, and constituting indirectly a motive to the party to avoid the commission of the act which induces such a consequence. Many contracts executed between parties contain a clause that one or other of them who fails to perform his part of the contract, will incur a penalty, In such cases, a distinction is i. e., will be liable to pay a tixed sum of money to the other party. drawn between a liquidated and unliquidated penalty; and whether it is of the one kind or the other, depends on the language used in the contract. If it is a liquidated penalty, then, when the breach of contract is committed, the party in default must pay that precise sum, neither more nor less; but if it is unliquidated, then he is not to pay the whole sum, but merely such part of it as corresponds to the amount of injury or damage done, and of which proportion a jury is the sole judge in an action of damages. In statutes, when penalties are declared to follow on certain illegal acts, the sum is sometimes fixed, but in many cases only a maximum sum is stated, it being left to the court or the justices. Sometimes penalties. who enforce the penalty what is a sufficient punishment for the offence. can only be sued for by the parties immediately injured; but, as a general rule, and unless it is otherwise restricted, anybody may sue for the penalty, for in an offence against public law, where there is no public prosecutor, any person who chooses

369

PENANCE.

may set the law in motion. Accordingly, not only may anybody in general sue for the penalty, but an inducement is offered by declaring the party who does so to be entitled to the whole or a half of the penalty. Without such inducement, many offences would be unpunished. The party who so sues is generally called the informer. Thus, in offences against the game laws, anybody may sue for the penalty, and he is entitled to half of it. Sometimes the penalty can only be sued for in the superior courts of law; but in the great majority of instances, the enforcing of penalties is part of the administration of justice before justices of the peace. It is for the justices to fix the amount if they have (as they generally have) a discretion to do so. If it is not paid, the justices may issue a distress-warrant, authorising a constable to seize and sell the goods of the party to pay the fine; and if there are no goods, then the justices may commit the party to prison as a substitutionary punishment. Sometimes justices have a discretion either to impose a penalty or commit the party to prison as an alternative punishment. All these matters depend on the construction of particular statutes.

PE'NANCE (Lat. pœnitentia), in Roman Catholic theology, means the voluntary or accepted selfinflicted punishment by which a repentant sinner manifests his sorrow for sin, and seeks to atone for the sin, and to avert the punishment which, even after the guilt has been remitted, may still remain due to the offence. Penance is believed in the Roman Catholic Church to be one of the sacraments of the New Law. It will be necessary to explain it briefly both under its relations as a sacrament, and as a private personal exercise.

6

sin pronounced by the priest who has received the confession, and has been satisfied of the penttential disposition of the self-accusing sinner. In all these points, of course, they are at issue wit Protestants. Even in the apostolic times, the practice prevailed of excluding persons of scandalous life from the spiritual fellowship of the Christian community (see EXCOMMUNICATION); and without attempting to fix the date, it may be stated as certain, from the authority of Tertullian and other writers, that from a very early time the persons so excluded were subjected to certain penitential regulations. The class of offenders so treated were those who had been notoriously guilty of the grievous crimes of idolatry or apostasy, murder, adultery, and other scandalous offences. The period of penitential probation differed in different times and places, but in general was graduated according to the enormity of the sin, some going so far in their rigour (see NOVATIAN) as, contrary to the clearly-expressed sense of the church, to carry it even beyond the grave. In the earlier ages, much depended upon the spirit of each particular church or country; but about the 4th c., the public penitential discipline assumed a settiel form, which, especially as established in the Greck Church, is so curious that it deserves to be briefly described. Sinners of the classes already referred to had their names enrolled, and were (in some churches, after having made a preliminary con fession to a priest appointed for the purposel admitted, with a blessing and other ceremonial, by the bishop to the rank of penitents. This enroiment appears to have commonly taken place on the first day of Lent. The penitents so enrolled Penance must be carefully distinguished from were arranged in four grades, called-1. (Gr. repentance, which is simply sorrow for evil-doing, prosklaiontes, Lat. flentes) Weepers; 2. (Gr. accompanied with a purpose of amendment. Pen- akroomenoi, Lat. audientes) Hearers;' 3. (Gr. hype ance is the fruit or the manifestation of this piptontes, Lat. prosternentes) Prostraters;' 4. (Gr. sorrow, and it is commonly accompanied or ex- systantes, Lat. consistentes) Standers.' Of these pressed by some of those external acts which are classes, the first were obliged to remain outside of the natural manifestations of any deep sorrow, the church at the time of public worship, and to either negative, as the neglect of ordinary attention ask the prayers of the faithful as they entered to dress, to the care of the person, to the use of The second were permitted to enter and to reman food; or positive, as the direct acts of personal in the place and during the time appointed for the mortification and self-inflicted pain, such as fasting, Catechumens (q. v.); but, like them, were required wearing haircloth, strewing the head with ashes, to depart before the commencement of the solema watching of nights, sleeping hard, &c. Such mani- part of the Liturgy (q. v.). The third were per festations of sorrow, whether from motives of mitted to pray with the rest, but kneeling or religion or from merely natural causes, are common prostrate, and for them were prescribed many other among the eastern races, and are frequently alluded acts of mortification. The fourth were permitted to in the Scripture. In the personal practice of to pray with the rest in a standing posture, althou the early Christians, penance found a prominent apparently in a distinct part of the church; but place, and the chief and acknowledged object of they were excluded from making offerings with the the stated Fasts (q. v.), and other works of morti- rest, and still more from receiving the communion. fication which prevailed, was that of penitential The time to be spent in each of these grades at first correction, or of the manifestation of sorrow for sin. differed very much according to times and circumA still more striking use of penance, however, stances, but was afterwards regulated by elaborate in the early church, was the disciplinary one; laws, called penitential canons. Still it was in the and this, in the Roman Catholic view, is con- power of the bishop to abridge or to prolong it; a nected with the sacramental character of pen-power, the exercise of which is connected with the ance. Any discussion of this purely theological question would be out of place here, and it will be enough to state briefly that Roman Catholics number penance among the Seven Sacraments (q. v.), and believe it to be of direct divine institution (Matt. xvi. 19, xviii. 18; John xx. 21). The matter of this sacrament consists, in their view, of the three acts of the penitentcontrition, or heartfelt sorrow for sin, as being an offence against God; confession, or detailed accusation of one's-self to a priest approved for the purpose; and satisfaction, or the acceptance and accomplishment of certain penitential works, in atonement of the sin confessed; and the form of the sacrament is the sentence of absolution from

historical origin of the practice of Indulgence (q. v.. Of these four grades, the first two hardly appear in the Western Church. It is a subject of controversy whether, and how far, this discipline was extended to other than public sinners; but it seems certain that individuals, not publicly known as sinners, voluntarily enrolled themselves among the penitents. All four grades wore a distinguishing penitential dress, in which they appeared on all occasions of public worship, and were obliged to observe certain rules of life, to renounce certain indulgences and luxuries, and to practise certain austerities. In some churches, they were employed in the care of the sick, the burial of the dead, and other of the more laborious works of charity. The penitent, in