PERESLAV-PERFUMERY, PERFUMES.

that of corn, whilst all the corn plants are annuals. -There is great diversity in the duration of life of perennial plants.

PERESLA'V,

or PEREIASLA'VLE-ZALIESKY, a district town in the middle of Great Russia, in the government of Vladimir, and 70 miles north west of the city of that name. It was founded in 1052 by George, Prince of Sousdal. It possesses upwards of 30 churches and religious institutions; but is principally noteworthy for its factories, which are nine in number, and of which the most important are cotton-mills and print-works for cotton goods. The factories yield in all an annual profit of about £3,000,000. The cotton manufactures of P. are exported to the fairs of Nijni-Novgorod and Irbit, and even to China by way of Siberia. Pop. 6783, employed in the factories and in the productive fishery of Lake Pleshtcheieff.

PEREZ, ANTONIO, minister of Philip II. of Spain, was born in Aragon in 1539. His father was Secretary of State under Charles I. and Philip II., and he himself was appointed to this office when only 25 years of age, and acquired the entire confidence of the king. Don Juan D'Austria, having sent his confidant, Juan de Escovedo, to Spain, to solicit aid against the party of Orange; and Escovedo having rendered himself an object of hatred both to the king and to P., the former resolved to put him out of the way by murder, and intrusted P. with the accomplishment of this design, which P., to gratify his own revenge, accomplished accordingly, 31st March 1578. The family of Escovedo denounced P. as the murderer, and all his enemies joined against him. The king at first sought to shield him; but in July 1581 he was arrested, and by torture forced to confess. He succeeded, however, in making his escape to Aragon, where he put himself under protection of its laws. After a long and severe inquiry into his conduct, he was found guilty of many acts of fraud and corruption, and condemned to death in Madrid; but the Justicia Major, or highest court of justice in Saragossa, refused to deliver him up. The king applied for aid in May 1591 to the Inquisition, and the Aragonese court delivered him up to its agents, but the people rose in tumult, and liberated him. This happened repeatedly; and at last, in September 1591, Philip II. entered Aragon! with an army powerful enough to subdue all opposition, abolished the old constitutional privileges of the country, and caused a number of the principal people to be executed. P., however, made his escape, avoiding the many plots which the king laid for his assassination. He was condemned in Spain as a heretic, but was treated with great kindness in Paris and London. He spent the latter years of his life in Paris, and died there in 1611 in great poverty. P. wrote an account of his misfortunes, which was published at Paris in 1598,

under the title of Relaciones.

this sense it is a rare attainment, but asserts that several persons have enjoyed this blessing, without interruption, for many years, several enjoy it at this day, and not a few have enjoyed it unto their death, as they have declared with their latest breath, calmly witnessing that God had saved them from all sin, till their spirit returned to God.' Concerning all which, the general belief of Protestant Christians is, that these persons were merely more self-complacent and less sensible of their own corruptions than is usual, and that the commands and promises concerning sanctification are all sus ceptible of an explanation consistent with remaining corruption in believers, and a need of further sanctification, or a continued going on unto perfection

whilst this life endures.

by the Franciscans, Jesuits, and Molinists in the That perfection is attainable in this life, is held Church of Rome, but denied by the Dominicans and Jansenists. In advocating the doctrine, its Roman Catholic supporters generally rest much on the distinction between mortal and venial sins.

PERFORMANCE OF CONTRACTS is one of the modes of satisfying the contract, which may be either by doing some specific thing, or not doing something, or by payment of money. It is a good answer to any action brought by one party against another for breach of contract, that what was contracted for has been already performed.

PERFUMERY, PERFUMES (Fr. perfum, from Lat. fumus, smoke or vapour), delicate fumes or smells. Perfumes are of three distinct classes when derived from plants, and there is a fourth class, which are of animal origin.

The most

CLASS I. These are the most ancient, and have been in use from the earliest period of which there is record. They consist of the various odoriferous gum-resins, which exude naturally from the trees which yield them; and to increase the produce, the plants are often purposely wounded. important are benzoin, olibanum, myrrh, and camphor. No less than 5000 cwt. of these together are annually imported into Britain. Gum-resins form the chief ingredients in Incense,' (q. v.), and in Pastilles (q. v.).

CLASS II. are those perfumes which are procured by distillation. As soon as the Greeks and the Romans learned the use of the still, which was an invention imported by them from Egypt, they quickly adapted it to the separation of the odorous principle from the numerous fragrance-bearing plants which are indigenous to Greece and Italy. An essential oil or otto thus procured from orange-flowers bears in commerce to this day the name of Neroly, supposed to be so named after the Emperor Nero. Long before that time, however, fragrant waters were in use in Arabia. Odour-bearing plants contain the fragrant principle in minute glands or sacs; these PERFECTIBILITY OF CHRISTIANS, a are found sometimes in the rind of the fruit, doctrine held by the Wesleyan Methodists (see as the lemon and orange; in others, it is in the METHODISTS) of a Christian perfection attainable in leaves, as sage, mint, and thyme; in wood, as this life. It is not a perfection of justification, but rosewood and sandal-wood; in the bark, as cassia a perfection of sanctification; which John Wesley, and cinnamon; in seeds, as caraway and nutmeg. in a sermon on Christian Perfection, from the text These glands or bags of fragrance may be Heb. vi. 1, 'Let us go on to perfection,' earnestly plainly seen in a thin cut stratum of orangecontends for as attainable in this life by believers, peel; so also in a bay leaf, if it be held up by arguments founded chiefly on the commandments to the sunlight, all the oil cells may be seen and promises of Scripture concerning sanctification; guarding his doctrine, however, by saying that it is neither an angelic nor an Adamic perfection, and does not exclude ignorance and error of judgment, with consequent wrong affections, such as 'needless fear or ill-grounded hope, unreasonable love, or unreasonable aversion.' He admits, also, that even in

like specks. All these fragrant-bearing substances yield by distillation an essential oil peculiar to each; thus is procured oil of patchouly from the leaves of the patchouly plant, Pogostemon patchouly, a native of Burmah; oil of caraway, from the caraway seed; oil of geranium, from the leaves of the Geranium rosa; oil of lemon, from

PERFUMERY, PERFUMES.

lemon-peel; and a hundred of others of more infinite variety.

The old name for these pure odoriferous principles was Quintessence. Latterly, they have been termed Essential Oils; they are now, in modern scientific works, often termed Ottos, from the Turkish word attar, which is applied to the wellknown otto or attar of roses. See OIL.

All the various essential oils or ottos are very slightly soluble in water, so that in the process of distillation the water which comes over is always fragrant. Thus, elder water, rose water, orange water, dill water are, as it were, the residue of the distillation for obtaining the several ottos. The process of Distillation (q. v.) is very simple; the fragrant part of the plant is put into the still and covered with water; and when the water is made to boil, the ottos rise along with the steam, are condensed with it in the pipe, and remain floating on the water, from which they are easily separated by decanting. In this way 100 pounds of orange, lemon, or bergamot fruit peel will yield about 10 ounces of the fragrant oil; 100 pounds of cedar wood will give about 15 ounces of oil of cedar; 100 pounds of nutmeg will yield 60 to 70 ounces of oil of nutmeg; 100 pounds of geranium leaves will yield 2 ounces of oil.

Every fragrant substance varies in yield of essential oil. The variety of essential oils is endless; but there are a certain relationship among odours as among tints. The lemon-like odours are the most numerous, such as verbena, lemon, bergamot, orange, citron, citronella; then the almondlike odours, such as heliotrope, vanilla, violet; then spice odours, cloves, cinnamon, cassia. The whole may be classified into twelve well-defined groups. All these ottos are very soluble in alcohol, in fat, butter, and fixed oils. They also mix with soap, snuff, starch, sugar, chalk, and other bodies, to which they impart their fragrance.

The principal consumption of the various fragrant ottos is for scenting soap. Windsor soap, almond soap, rose soap, and a great variety of others, consist of various soaps made of oil and tallow, perfumed while in a melted state with the several named ottos or mixtures of them.

Though snuff is by no means so popular an article in the reign of Victoria as it was in Anne's time, yet the increased population, and still more increased exports to colonies, cause a positive increased production in scented snuff now than fifty years past, and it is especially in demand in the fur countries of Northern Canada. There is a large consumption of fragrant essential oils in the manufacture of toilet powders; under the various names of rose powder, violet powder, &c., a mixture of starch and orris, differently scented, is in general demand for drying the skin of infants after the bath.

Precipitated chalk and powdered cuttle-fish bone, being perfumed with otto of roses, powdered myrrh, and camphor, become 'Dentifrice." The ottos of peppermint, lavender, rose, and others, are extensively used in scenting sweetmeats and lozenges.

More than 200,000 pounds-weight of various ottos were imported into Britain in 1860, and valued at over £180,000; to this must be added at least onethird as much again distilled in England. Of the imported articles enumerated, oils of lemon and bergamot, from the Two Sicilies, reached 128,809 pounds, valued at £57,054.

CLASS III.-These are the perfumes proper, such as are used for perfuming handkerchiefs, &c. Contrary to the general belief, nearly all the perfumes derived from flowers are not made by distillation, but by the processes of enfleurage and maceration. Although this mode of obtaining the

odours from flowers has certainly been in practice for two centuries in the valley of the Var, in the south of France, it is only by the publication of a recent work that the method has been made generally known. The odours of flowers do not, as a general rule, exist in them as a store or in a gland but are developed as an exhalation. While the flower breathes it yields fragrance, but kill the flower, and fragrance ceases. It has not been ascertained when the discovery was made of condensing, as it were, the breath of the flower during life; what we know now is, that if a living flower be placed near to grease, animal fat, butter, or oil, these bodies absorb the odour given off by the blossom, and in turn themselves become fragrant. If we spread fresh unsalted butter upon the bottom of two dessertplates, and then fill one of the plates with gathered fragrant blossoms of clematis, covering them over with the second greased plate, we shall find that after 24 hours the grease has become fragrant. The blossoms, though separated from the parent stem, do not die for some time, but live and exhale odour; which is absorbed by the fat. To remove the odour from the fat, the fat must be scraped off the plates and put into alcohol; the odour then leaves the grease and enters into the spirit, which thus becomes scent,' and the grease again becomes odourless.

The flower farmers of the Var follow precisely this method on a very large scale, with but a little practical variation, with the following flowers-rose, orange, acacia, violet, jasmine, tuberose, and jonquil. The process is termed enfleurage. In the valley of the Var, there are acres of jasmine, of tuberose, of violets, and the other flowers named; in due season the air is laden with fragrance, the flower harvest is at hand. Women and children gather the blossoms, which they place in little panniers like fishermen's baskets hung over the shoulders. They are then carried to the laboratory of flowers and weighed. In the laboratory the harvest of flowers has been anticipated. During the previous winter great quantities of grease, lard, and beef-suet have been collected, melted, washed, and clarified. In each laboratory there are several thousand chassis (sashes), or framed glasses, upon which the grease to be scented is spread, and upon this grease the blossoms are sprinkled or laid. The chasse en verre is, in fact, a frame with a glass in it as near as possible like a window-sash, only that the frame is two inches thicker, so that when one châsse is placed on another, there is a space of four inches between every two glasses, thus allowing space for blossoms. The illustration shews the châsse with grease and flowers upon it (fig. 1), also a pile of the same as in use. The flower blossoms are changed every day, or every other day, as is convenient in regard to the general work of the laboratory or flowering of the plants. The same grease, however, remains in the châsse so long as the particular plant being used yields blossoms. Each time the fresh flowers are put on, the grease is worked '-that is, serrated with a knife-so as to offer a fresh surface of grease to absorb odour. The grease being enfleurée in this way for three weeks or more-in fact, so long as the plants produce blossoms-is at last scraped off the châsse, melted, strained, and poured into tin canisters, and is now fit for exportation. Fat or oil is perfumed with these same flowers by the process of maceration; that is, infusion of the flowers in oil or melted fat. For this end, purified fat is melted in a bain marie, or warm bath, and the fresh

*Art of Perfumery, by Septimus Piesse, Ph.D., 8vo. 50 cuts. Longman.

PERFUMERY, PERFUMES.

1, Bain Marie; 2, Section of Bain Marie.

give more satisfactory products by maceration; while violet and jonquil grease is best obtained by the joint processes-enfleurage followed by

PERGAMUS-PERICARDITIS.

ounces, value £225; civet 355 ounces, value £300; orris root 420 hundredweight.

The works on perfumes are very few; that of Madame Celnart, in the Libraire Roret, is most worthy of notice among the French; a translation of it has been made by Mr C. Mortit of Philadelphia. In England, The British Perfumer, by C. Lilly (1822), was the only work of the kind published in England prior to the Art of Perfumery by Septimus Piesse (1855).

PERGAMUS, or PERGAMUM, anciently a city of Mysia in Asia Minor, on the navigable river Caicus, at the distance of 120 stadia from the sea. According to tradition, the place was of Greek origin, but its early history is quite insignificant. It first acquired prominence when Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals, chose it as a stronghold in which to keep his treasures. Under Philetarus it became the capital of a state, 283 B.C. His successor, Eumenes I., maintained its independence against the Seleucide, although the title of king was first assumed by Attalus I., who reigned from 241 to 197 B. C. He intimately allied himself with the Romans against Philip of Macedon, and this alliance subsisted throughout succeeding reigns, in which the kingdom increased in extent and importance, till at last Attalus III., surnamed Philometer, who died in 133 B. C., left it with all his treasures to the Romans, who successfully maintained the right thus acquired, and under whom the city continued to flourish. It was the focus of all the great military and commercial routes of Asia Minor, and Pliny describes it as longe clarissimum Asice Pergamum. The Attali collected in P. a library only inferior to that of Alexandria. It was also the seat of a famous grammar-school, and it gave its name to Parchment (q. v.). P. sank under the Byzantine emperors, but the place still exists under the name Bergamah, and is noted for the splendour and magnificence of its ruins, which embrace temples, palaces, aqueducts, gymnasia, amphitheatres, and city walls.

PERGOLESE, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, an eminent musician of the Neapolitan school. Evidence regarding the date and place of his birth is conflicting; probably the correct account is that of the Marchese di Villarosa, his latest biographer, who states that he was born at Jesi, near Ancona, on the 3d of January 1710. In 1717 he was admitted into the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesù Cristo at Naples, where he studied the violin under Domenico di Matteis, and musical composition under Gaetano Greco and Durante. Under the conviction that melody and taste were sacrificed to learning by most of the masters of his time, he abandoned the style of Scurlatti and Greco for that of Vinci and Hasse. His first great work was the oratorio of San Guglielmo d'Aquitania, composed in 1731. In that and the following year appeared his operas of La Serva Padrona, Il Prigionier Superbo, and Lo Frate Innamorato, in 1734, Adriano in Siria; in 1735, Il Flaminio and L'Olimpiade. In 1734, he received the appointment of maestro di capella of the Church of Loretto. In consequence of delicate health, he removed to Pozzuoli, where he composed the cantata of Orfeo, and his pathetic Stabat Mater. He died there of consumption in 1736. Besides the above-mentioned works, P. composed a number of pieces for the church, which were better appreciated during his lifetime than his secular compositions, also a violin concerto, and thirty trios for violin, violoncello, and harpsichord. His works are all characterised by sweetness and freedom of style. PERI (Fairy), according to the mythical lore of the East, a being begotten by fallen spirits, which spends its life in all imaginable delights, is

immortal, but is for ever excluded from the joys of Paradise. It takes an intermediate place between angels and demons, and is either male or female. So far from there being only female Peris, as is supposed by some, and these the wives of the Devs, the Peris live, on the contrary, in constant warfare with these Devs. Otherwise, they are of the most innocuous character to mankind, and, exactly as the fairies, with whom our own popular mythology has made us familiar, are, when female, of surpassing beauty. One of the finest compliments to be paid to a Persian lady is to speak of her as Perizadeh (born of a Peri; Greek, Parisatis). They belong to the great family of genii, or jin: a belief in whom is enjoined in the Koran, and for whose conversion, as well as for that of man, Mohammed was sent (cf. Koran, chaps. lv., lxxii., and lxxiv.).

PERIA GUA, a large canoe composed of the trunks of two trees, hollowed and united into one fabric; whereas an ordinary canoe is formed of the body of one tree only. Periaguas are used in the Pacific, and were formerly employed among the West India Islands, whence the frequent allusion to them in Robinson Crusoe.

PERIANTH (Gr. peri, around, anthos, a flower), in Botany, the floral envelope (see FLOWER) of those plants in which the calyx and corolla are not easily distinguished. The term is convenient, as it can be applied indifferently to the calyx and corolla; thus, when there is either a calyx or corolla existing, but not both, the perianth is said to be single; when both are present, double. Both are really present in many endogenous plants, to which the use of the term perianth is confined by some botanists; the single Horal envelope of exogenous plants being regarded as a calyx, and the corolla supposed to be wanting. The perianth is regular in some plants, irregular in others. It often displays great beauty, as in tulips, crocuses, lilies, &c.

PERICARDI'TIS, or Inflammation of the Pericardium (q. v.), is a disease of frequent occur rence; the result of a very large number of post-mortem examinations being to shew that about 1 in 23 of all who die at an adult age exhibits traces of recent or old attacks of this disorder.

For reasons which will be obvious when we come

to speak of the physical signs of this disease, we shall commence with a notice of the anatomical changes which take place in the inflamed membrane. Very soon after symptoms of pericarditis begin to shew themselves there is an abnormal dryness of the serous membrane, which is speedily followed by an increased secretion of fluid. The secreted fluid is sometimes almost entirely fibrinous, in which case it coagulates, and gives rise to adhesions between the heart and the pericardium; or it may consist almost entirely of serum, which remains liquid; or it may be, and it most frequently is a mixture of the two. When there is a large amount of liquid effusion (as, for instance, a third of a pint or more) which is not re-absorbed, death usually takes place in the course of a few days, in consequence of the interference of the fluid with the heart's actions; but when there is not much liquid effusion, or when the liquid part is absorbed, the pericardium becomes more or less adherent, and apparent recovery usually takes place.

In the cases that prove fatal when fibrinous fluid has been effused, but has not coagulated to such an extent as to cause complete adhesion of the heart to the pericardium, the partially coagulated fibrin (or lymph, as the older authors styled it) is seen to be of a yellowish-white colour, and to occur in a rugged, shaggy, or cellular form. Laennec compared the

PERICARDITIS-PERICARDIUM.