The obverse has been stamped nine times, and the reverse eight times, with a seal which reads: (Col. 1) Gimil-a Sin lugal ag-ga lugal uri-kima lugal-an-ub-da tab-ba (Col. 2) Ḥu-u[n] dup-sar dumu Gimil-dAdab sahar arad-zu. To Gimil-Sin, the mighty king, king of Ur, king of the four quarters of the world, Hu-u[n the scribe, son of Gimil-Adab the sahar thy servant. The left edge of the reverse bears two impressions of a seal likewise dedicated to Gimil-Sin1 by Nuùr-Si[n] dup-sar dumu I-ti.

1 For other seals dedicated to the same ruler, see Janneau, Une Dynastie Chaldéenne, pp. 49, 53–54.

Wine in the Pentateuchal Codes. By MORRIS JASTROW, JR., Professor in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.

I.

There are two views taken of wine in the Old Testament, one a decidedly unfavorable view, and the other of a more favorable character. As an illustration of the unfavorable view, the account given in Genesis 9, 20-27 of the beginning of viniculture furnishes a characteristic illustration. In this little addition to the Jahwist's account of the Deluge, the planting of the vine leading to Noah's fall from grace is clearly introduced as a protest against the use of wine. Similarly, in the folk-tale, Gen. 19, 31-38, of the origin of the tribes of Ammon and Moab, there is a very distinct antagonism against the use of wine. The drunken Lot because of the wine engages in shameful intercourse with his two daughters. The assumption in the Noah and in the Lot incident is that he who drinks wine gets drunk and disgraces himself.

This opposition to viniculture is in keeping with a tendency in many parts of the Old Testament which looks with disfavor on the advance to a higher form of culture. Abel the shepherd is given the preference over Cain the tiller of the soil and the city builder. In the Pentateuchal Codes agri

1 See Budde Urgeschichte, p. 313 seq. Gunkel, Genesis, p. 71, and Skinner, Genesis, p. 182 seq., though it is not necessary to assume with Budde, Skinner, and others, that the section does not know anything of the Deluge. It is introduced as a tendency-tale.

2 It matters little for our purposes what the purpose of the tale is, though I confess that Gunkel's explanation (p. 197 seq.) seems to me very artificial.

culture is preferred to commerce which is looked upon askance.1 The simple tribal organization is preferred to a union into a Kingdom 2-in short, simplicity over any advancing form of luxury which comes with the higher culture. The prophets are full of protests against what from the ordinary point of view would be regarded as material and political progress. The Rechabites, 3 surviving to the period of the Exile, represent this protest of the lower culture against the higher one, emphasized by their opposition to wine and by their dwelling in tents in preference to houses-the symbol of the higher culture, concomitant with city life.

The Book of Proverbs, despite the late date of its final form, maintains on the whole the antagonistic attitude towards wine. In such sayings as Pr. 23, 31, "Look not on wine when it is red, when it sparkles in the cup", etc.; 4 Pr. 20, 1, "Wine is a mocker, strong drink is a brawler", the assumption still is that he who drinks wine gets drunk and is led to other excesses. "He who loves wine and oil will not be rich", (Pr. 21, 17) where the juxtaposition with oil illustrates the protest against luxury. A somewhat cynical point of view is set forth in the later chapter 31, 4-7, where we read:5

"It is not for kings to drink wine,
Nor for rulers to mix strong drink;
Lest, drinking, they forget the law,

And disregard the rights of the suffering.
Give strong drink to him who is perishing,
Wine to him who is in bitter distress;

1 The prohibition against taking interest-aimed against Babylonian practices and emphasized in three of the Codes (Ex. 22, 24; Lev. 25, 36-37; Deut. 23, 20-21) is virtually an enjoinder upon commerce which cannot be carried on without making loans on interest. The words "to the stranger thou mayst lend on interest" (Deut. 23, 21) are a later addition-a concession to actual conditions, but not in keeping with the spirit of the original provision.

2 The institution of the kingdom is viewed as an act of disloyalty to Jahweh (I Sam. 12, 12). The view taken of the kingdom and what will happen through the institution is illustrated by Deut. 17, 14-17 and by the parable in Judges 9, 7-15.

3 Jer. 35, 5-10.

4 See also Pr. 23, 20-21; 29-30.

5 Toy's rendering and reading (Critical and Evangelical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs, p. 539).

That, drinking, he may forget his poverty,
And think of his misery no more."

Wine drinking had evidently become a common practice, but was still viewed with disfavor in certain circles whose contemptuous attitude is indicated in these words. Elsewhere, to be sure, e. g., Pr. 9, 2 and 5, "mixed wine" is introduced by the side of meat and bread without any implied opposition, though it is still a wide step to the praise of wine in the later Psalm 104, 15.

"And wine to cheer man's heart,

Oil to make his skin to shine,

And bread to strengthen man's heart."1

We may perhaps be permitted to conclude from such passages as I Sam. 10, 3; 16, 20; 25, 18; II Sam. 16, 1-2, that by the time of the establishment of the Kingdom, the use of wine had become common; and it is significant that according to the Deuteronomic Code (Deut. 14, 26) both wine and strong drink may be indulged in on the occasion of the festivals, showing that by the end of the seventh century opposition to it had ceased even in religious circles.2

The later view of post-exilic Judaism is reflected in the juxtaposition of "bread and wine", as the accessory to the blessing formula in Gen. 14, 18.3 Pre-exilic and post-exilic prophets still protest against excess in drinking and make use of the wine bibber as a picture of lewdness and disgrace. (Is. 5, 11. 22; 22, 13; 28, 7; Joel 1, 5; Zach. 9, 15) but it is no longer assumed that drinking necessarily leads to drunkenness.4 A good wine crop is looked upon as a sign of divine favor and its failure as a sign of God's displeasure-on the same plane with a good or bad yield in corn or oil, e. g., Amos 5, 11; 9, 14; Is. 16, 10; 24, 11; Jer. 13, 12; 40, 10. 12; 48, 33; Zeph. 1, 13; Micha 6, 15; cf. Deut. 28, 39 and

1 Horace Howard Furness' translation in Polychrome Bible, ed. Haupt. 2 See also Deut. 28, 39.

3 Gunkel, Genesis p. 263, has happily and tersely described this chapter as a "legend of the time of Judaism", based on some historical reminiscences which are woven into the story, intended to bring Abraham into relationship with the great figures of Babylonian history.

4 In Hosea, 4, 11, the words "Harlotry and wine and mead take away the understanding", represent an old proverb inserted as appropriate at this place by some redactor.

Lam. 2, 12. The metaphor introduced in the late passage Zach. 10, 7, "their heart rejoiceth as with wine" approaches the attitude expressed in the 104th Psalm as quoted above.

On the other hand when we are told, Gen. 27, 25, that Jacob brought his father, Isaac, wine, it is evident that the words "and he brought him wine and he drank" represent a later addition to the original Jahwist narrative to make the story conform to later conditions. Throughout the narrative (v. 17 and she placed the "dainties and the food"; v. 19, "eat of my venison" cf. v. 31--33) food only is referred to, and the manner in which the words in question are attached betray the later gloss or comment.

A distinction between earlier and later social conditions is also revealed in the stereotyped phrase ITA 17 (dāgān, tîrôš yiṣhār) characteristic of Deuteronomy-2 for summing up the products of the land, where tirôš takes the place of the later yayin and represents a preparation of the grape juice in a less advanced stage than the finished fermented product. It has, of course, been noted by commentators 3 that the other two terms dagan (corn) and yiṣhār (oil) are replaced in later usage by n (hittim) and (semen) so that there are substantial grounds for believing that the Deuteronomic phrase belongs to an earlier stage in agricultural development 5 when so far as the grape was concerned the process of manufacturing a thoroughly fermented article had not yet been perfected. Without going into the vexed question of the etymology of

4

1 Recognized as such by Gunkel, Genesis, p. 279.

2 Deut. 7, 13; 11, 14; 12, 17; 14, 23; 18, 4; 28, 51. The occurrence of the phrase in such passages as Hos. 2, 10. 24, Haggai 1, 11, Joel 2, 19 and II Chron. 31, 5, and Neh. 5, 11; 10, 40; 13, 5. 12 is of course a reminiscence or direct quotation of the Deuteronomic usage, while 1 b (heleb, tîrôš, dāgān) in Num. 18, 12 is a variant phrase similarly dependent. The phrase 1 (dāgān and tîrôš) e. g., Gen.

27, 28. 37 (Elohist); Deut. 33, 28; II Kgs. 18, 33; Hos. 7, 14; Zach. 9, 17; Ps. 4, 8; Is. 62, 8;-occurring chiefly in poetical passages-likewise represents a variant of the archaic formula.

3 e. g. Driver, Deuteronomy, p. 103.

4 Dāgān, however, continues to be used in later poetical compositions, e. g. in Ezekiel 36, 29; Ps. 65, 10; 78, 24.

* Indicated also by the use of tîrôš and not yayin in the parable Jud. 9, 13 where the vine says "shall I abandon my tîrôš that rejoiceth god (Elohim) and men"?