of Christ. Up to that time the Temple had been the chief place of worship frequented by our Lord and the Apostles. After that time Judaism was dropped and Christianity reigned supreme.

Gibbon saw the epoch making character of the event, when he drew attention to "The holy instruments of Jewish worship, the gold table and the gold candlestick with seven branches, originally framed according to the particular instructions of God Himself, which were placed in the sanctuary of His Temple . . . and ostentatiously displayed to the Roman people in the triumph of Titus" (D. and F., chapter xxxvi.). It is an event which enters largely into the subject of the Revelation. We shall look back upon it frequently from the pages of the Commentary.

When Nero died, civil wars broke out between pretenders to the throne, and the empire was deluged with Roman blood. Galba reigned but a few months. Otho, proclaimed Emperor by his legions, attacked Galba and slew him in the Forum. Then Vitellius, proclaimed emperor by the German legions, attacked Otho. Four considerable battles were fought between them, before Otho, defeated near Cremona, stabbed himself to death. After that Vespasian was hailed Emperor by his legions at Alexandria. He marched against Vitellius, defeated and slew him at the gate of Rome. Rome became a scene of slaughter, and the Capitol was reduced to ashes. All these things, which marked the beginning of the end of Rome, came to pass a few months after the Apocalypse was written. (“The things which must shortly come to pass," R. i. 1.) Vespasian was followed by his son Titus. This very remarkable man was known as "the delight of mankind." It is said of him that, having once passed a day without doing some good action, he said: "My friends, I have lost a day" (The star, R. viii. 10). In his reign the volcano in Mount Vesuvius was in violent action. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely destroyed by streams of lava, and the greater part of Italy was covered with ashes. To this cause was attributed the great plague which devastated the country, and, it is said, carried off daily for a considerable time 10,000 persons in Rome alone (The "white horse," R. vi. 8).

Titus was followed by Domitian, the author of the second persecution, which lasted a short time, and ended with his death, in 96.

We have noticed that a casual remark of S. Irenæus―viz., that the Apocalypse was seen at the end of Domitian's reign, gave rise to an opinion in the Middle Ages, that there was a great persecution in Domitian's reign, and that S. John was exiled to Patmos at that time.

The Domitian persecution is a question of first-class importance as regards the date and exegesis of the Apocalypse. If it can be shown that the Domitian persecution was not severe and did not reach Ephesus, where S. John dwelt, it will be evident that the medieval interpreters of S. Irenæus, read into his casual remark, a meaning that he did not intend to convey. Fortunately for our enquiry this period of history is illuminated by the writings of many contemporary historians. Tacitus, who was Consul in the year 97, wrote a "History" of the Emperors, and "Annals" of their reigns, Suetonius who was afterwards Chief Secretary to the Emperor Hadrian, and who was a frequenter of the law courts of Domitian, wrote "The lives of the twelve Cæsars," from Julius Cæsar to Domitian. Juvenal was preparing his "Satires" on the vicious state of Roman society at the end of the first century. Quintilian was teaching rhetoric at Rome. Martial was publishing his poems. Josephus was resident at Rome, publishing his "Wars of the Jews" and other books. Pliny, the younger, was President of the military tribunal at Rome, and Clemens Romanus the oldest of the Fathers of the Church was Bishop of Rome. He has left us in his Epistle to the Corinthians his view of the Domitian persecution. All of these contemporary writers give evidence on the events of that time, the cumulative effect of which is strongly against the view that Domitian persecuted the Church.

Titus Flavius Domitian was the younger son of Vespasian. He was a member of the Flavian family, specially chosen by God to execute His judgments on the Jewish race. His father

Vespasian and his brother Titus were instrumental in the fulfilment of the prophecies of the Old Testament. They were, both of them, remarkably good men, as good men were reckoned in those days. Domitian was destined in a way to complete the punishment of the Jews, by fleecing them of their money. One would not expect any member of this family raised up to the throne of the Cæsars, with the divine mission of punishing the Jews, to persecute also the children of the Kingdom of Christ.

Domitian succeeded his brother Titus, A.D. 81. For many years he reigned wisely. He was of studious and literary tastes and appointed a college and priests of Minerva. He erected temples to the Gods. He reformed the administration of justice both at home and in the provinces. Suetonius, who was a young man at the time, gives him a very good character at this period of his reign, in his "Lives of the XII. Cæsars" (Dom.). He was generous as well as just. He refused estates left to him as legacies by those who had children. He put a stop to treasury prosecutions got up by informers, and discouraged their vicious trade. Suetonius tells us that magistrates and

censor "

governors of provinces never were so just and impartial as they were in Domitian's day. Quintilian calls him "sanctissimus (Inst. Orat. iv. Pro.). His vigilance extended to the morals of the people. He interdicted the making of eunuchs and the worst forms of vice. He banished vestal virgins who were peccant, and buried alive one, more profligate than the rest. Martial congratulates him on restoring the temples to the Gods, and morals to the people. Suetonius says that he restored at great expense the Libraries which had been destroyed by the fire, and sent scribes to Alexandria to copy the books in the great Library there (Dom.).

With all this solicitude for public rectitude and morality, Domitian was, in private life, according to Tacitus and Juvenal, a debauchee. History, however, tells the same tale of other great men, who had not the excuse of paganism.

Like his predecessors on the throne, Domitian was more or less impressed with the idea of his divinity. But Mommsen holds that Aurelian was the first Emperor to assume divinity, officially.

In the year 93 an event took place which seems to have completely altered his character. Antonius Saturninus, a general who commanded the legions in Upper Germany, revolted with two legions and was joined by the Germans. He was defeated by a Roman army under Norbanus. Treasonable correspondence involving noble families at Rome was found upon him. These incriminating papers are said to have been destroyed by Norbanus (Dion. "Dom."). But Domitian could not forget that Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, had lost their thrones and lives through similar revolts. He suspected the Roman nobles about him of a plot against his throne and life, and was cast into a paroxysm of rage and fear. He shut himself up in his palace and walked alone in a marble gallery, whose black walls, highly polished, reflected objects behind him. He became the prey of informers who saw their opportunity had come again, and multiplied themselves accordingly. He put to death a great many of the senators. Amongst them Civica Cerealis, Pro-Consul of Africa, and Salvidienus Orfitus, and Acilius Glabrio, while in exile, on pretence of their designing an insurrection (Suet. Dom.). Glabrio, who was Consul in the year 91, is, for no apparent reason, claimed as a Christian. Elias Lamias was put to death for old and harmless jests; Junius Ruflicus for publishing a treatise in praise of Thraseas and Helvidius; the son of Helvidius, a friend of Tacitus, for a stage allusion to divorce. Salvinus perished for having celebrated the birthday of his Uncle Otho; Metius Pomposianus because he was born under a constellation which promised him

a throne; Lucullus, for having invented a lance which he called by his own name; Flavius Sabinus, because a herald, by mistake, proclaimed him Emperor instead of Consul; Epaphroditas, Domitian's secretary, because he was one of those who fled with Nero, and helped him to kill himself (Suet. Dom., Dion. LXVII. 2). Many others were put to death with torture, in consequence of the revolt, amongst these the prætorian prefects in the time of their magistracy. Tacitus says that in the latter end of his reign Domitian, not at intervals, but by one stroke, as it were, aimed at destroying the commonwealths. These actions wear the appearance of having been caused by the madness of fright. Informers were everywhere. Men feared to speak or even to listen in public. All those who could do so abandoned Rome and fled to country villas.

One of Domitian's earliest victims was his cousin Flavius Clemens, who had been recently his colleague in the Consulship. This man stood so near the throne that his sons were adopted by Domitian as his successors, for he was childless. Flavius Clemens was put to death, suddenly, without trial, according to Suetonius.

This is the testimony of Suetonius. Denique Flavium Clementem, patruelem suum, contemptissimæ inertiæ (cujus filios, etiam tum parvulos, successores palam destinaverat, et abolito priore nomine, alterum Vespasianum appellari jusserat, alterum Domitianum), repente, ex tenuissima suspicione, tantum non in ipso ejus consulatu interemit (Dom.).

Nothing is known of what became of these two boys, renamed by Domitian, Vespasian and Domitian. But Domitilla the wife of Flavius Clemens, Domitian's sister's child, was banished to Pandataria, one of the Pontian Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea: a place reserved for the peccant ladies of the families of the Cæsars. Julia the daughter of Augustus, Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, and Octavia the wife of Nero, were previously banished there.

Here another witness comes in, Dion Cassius, who was born in Bithynia, about A.D. 155. He rose to a high position in the Roman world, becoming Senator in 180, Consul in 220, and again in 229. He wrote a history of Rome, about a hundred years after these events, in which he says the pretext made use of to condemn Clemens was that he and his wife Flavia Domitilla were guilty of atheism. To those on the spot it appeared that the suspicion of treason was sufficient, and it probably was at the first period of Domitian's outburst. But there is evidence that Domitian was raising money from his Jewish subjects by extortion, and from wealthy Romans on the plea that they were Judaisers.

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Dion Cassius, who wrote in Greek, uses the expression, ¤YKλημа åÐÉOTηTOS" the accusation of Godlessness." He says that many were punished who had embraced the custom of the Jews—τὰ τῶν Ιουδαίων ἤθη.

To understand the real significance of this statement we must look into the condition of Domitian's exchequer. He had increased the pay of the soldiers and embarked on a vast programme of public building at Rome, which exhausted his ordinary revenues. He rebuilt the Capitol, burnt down in the Civil Wars. He erected a temple to Jupiter Custos. According to Plutarch he spent twelve thousand talents, about £2,500,000, in gilding this temple. He built the forum of Nerva, and finished the Temple of the Divine Augustus, begun by Livia. He erected a Temple in honour of his father Vespasian, and his brother Titus, in the year 94, the columns of which still stand on a lofty platform. The Curia Julia which was damaged by fire in Nero's time, he repaired. The arch of Titus was probably built by Domitian, as Titus is given on it the title of Divus, showing that he was dead. The huge Colosseum, begun by Vespasian in the year 72, was finished by Domitian. The Stadium of Domitian was another of his great works. The Palace of Domitian, one of the finest which covered the Palatine Hill, was begun by Vespasian and finished by Domitian. Its pavements were made of serpentine, porphyry, and other precious marbles. From the Triclinium opened out a Peristyle, covering an area of 3,600 square yards. Columns of porta-santa formed a colonnade around it; and the walls of black marble were so highly polished that they reflected objects, like a mirror. To complete these works, Suetonius tells us, estates of the living and the dead were seized upon, on any pretext. "Above all others the Jews were miserably mauled by the confiscation of their estates." Writing as an eye-witness, he says that rich Jews who endeavoured to save their money by denying their faith were examined as to the evidence of circumcision, which settled the question for them. But the poorest Jews were not exempt. Domitian revived and rigorously enforced against all Jews the law of his father Vespasian, which diverted to the State Coffers, the ancient temple tribute of a didrachma, formerly sent by every adult Jew annually to Jerusalem. This tribute, about two shillings of our money, was exacted even from the poorest, with merciless rapacity. To this we will return.

Some pretext was required for fleecing those Romans who were conspicuous by reason of their wealth. And here the accusation of following Jewish customs was made by informers, a class of people who made their living by this ancient form of