the crest of a hill, are open to the public. From the grounds of Marienlist, magnificent views may be had of the Sound, of Helsingborg, and of the plains of Sweden. The harbour of E., formed by a wooden pier, is accessible to ships of light draught. E. has a brisk foreign trade, and has, besides, manufactures of straw-hats, arms, sugar, brandy, &c., also cottonprinting and fisheries. The Sound Dues (q. v.) were collected here. Pop. 9097.

Saxo Grammaticus, a famous writer of the 12th c., was born here. Here Shakspeare laid the scene of his Hamlet, a perversion of history on the part of the great dramatist, as Jutland, not Seeland, was Hamlet's country. The vaults under the castle of Kronborg were supposed to be the residence of Holger Danske, the mythic hero of Denmark, who never appeared above ground save when the country was in danger, and was then supposed to march at the head of the Danish armies. In severe winters the Sound is frozen over at E., so that one can walk over the ice from Denmark to Sweden.

E'LSSLER, FANNY, a celebrated dancer, was born at Vienna in the year 1811, and educated at Naples for the ballet, along with her elder sister Theresa. The first triumph of the sisters took place at Berlin, where they appeared in 1830. The reputation acquired by Fanny in Berlin preceded her to Italy, America, England, and St Petersburg, where her beauty, amiability, and mastery in her art, charmed all classes of society. In 1841, the two sisters went to America, where they excited unwonted enthusiasm. After Fanny had earned laurels in St Petersburg, she returned, in 1851, to Vienna, to take a final leave of the stage. She then retired to Hamburg, where she still resides on a small estate purchased by her beyond the Dammthore. Theresa was less grace ful in her motions than her sister, but exhibited great strength, boldness, and agility. On the 25th April 1851, she became the wife of Prince Adalbert of Prussia, and was ennobled by the king of

Prussia.

E'LSTER, the name of two rivers of Germany, the White and the Black Elster. The White E. rises at the foot of the Elster mountains, on the north-western boundary of Bohemia, flows in a northerly direction, and falls into the Saale three miles south of the town of Halle, in Prussia. Its chief affluent is the Pleisse from the right. Total length, 110 miles. The Black E. rises in the kingdom of Saxony, within two miles of Elstra, flows northwest, enters Prussia, and joins the Elbe eight miles south-east of Wittenberg. Length, 105 miles.

ELSTRACKE, REGINALD or RENOLD, an English engraver, who flourished about 1620. He worked chiefly for the booksellers, and his plates, which are executed with the graver, without etching, are almost entirely confined to portraits. Prints from his plates are much sought after, not only from their scarcity, and as illustrating English history, but as works of art, in which much character is expressed in a firm and forcible manner. When he did not sign his plates with his name, he marked them with his initials, R. E.

salt, that the lake seems covered with snow and ice. E. yields about 100,000 tons of salt annually, in the collection of which about 10,000 persons are employed.

ELUTRIATION is the term applied to the process of separating, by means of water, the finer particles of earths and pigments from the heavier portions. The apparatus generally used is a large vat, in which grinding wheels revolve, and the substance to be reduced to powder being placed in the vat along with water, the wheels in revolving not only pulverise the material, but from their motion being communicated to the water, the latter is enabled to retain in mechanical suspension the finer particles of the clay, &c. By allowing a stream of water to flow in and out of the vat, the finer particles can be constantly floated away, and the liquid being run into settling vats, the fine powder settles to the bottom, when the water can be run off from the surface. This process is much employed in the manufacture of the materials used in pottery, and in the preparation of pigments.

E'LVANS are veins of a granular crystalline mixture of felspar and quartz, probably proceeding from a granite mass, which are found in granite rocks and fossiliferous slates in Cornwall, Devon, and the south of Ireland.

E'LVAS, an episcopal city and fortress of Portugal, stands in a very fruitful district on the eastern frontier of the province of Alemtejo, 10 miles west of Badajoz, and 40 miles north-east of Evora. It is the strongest fortress in Portugal, and one of the strongest in Europe. It is built upon a precipitous hill; is surrounded by walls, and by a glacis and covered-way. Besides these, E. has other defences in two formidable forts, Fort Sta. Lucia, and Fort Lippe, the former to the south, and the latteralmost entirely shell-proof-to the north of the city. E. is an old town; many of its houses are badly built. Its most striking architectural feature is an enormous aqueduct, which conveys water to it from a distance of three miles. This aqueduct consists of four tiers of arches built upon one another, and rising to the height of about 250 feet. The chief manufactures of E. are arms and jewellery. There are here extensive store-houses filled with British manufactures, and the inhabitants, by illegally selling these goods within the Spanish frontier, realise considerable wealth. Pop. 12,400.

E. has undergone many sieges, but has never been taken. The Spaniards besieged it in 1385, and again in 1659, when a famous battle took place called the Lines of Elvas, in which the Portuguese, though greatly inferior in numbers, drove the Spaniards from their lines in front of the town. E. was raised to the rank of a city by D. Manoel, king of Portugal, in 1513.

ELVES. See FAIRIES.

latter in the town.

Ely Cathedral.-About the year 673, Etheldreda, daughter of the king of East Anglia, and wife of Oswy, king of Northumberland, founded a monastery here, and took on herself the government of it. Two hundred years afterwards (870), the Danes ravaged the Isle, and destroyed the monastery, which was rebuilt in 970 by St Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester; and this continued till 1081, when a new church was begun, which was ouvered

EMACIATION (Lat. macies), leanness. See PHTHISIS, TABES, CONSUMPTION.

EMANATION means, in general, efflux or issue. In theology and philosophy, it indicates an ancient doctrine, which considered all things as emanating or flowing from a Supreme Principle. According to this doctrine, the origin of things is only an overflowing of the divine fulness-an outstreaming of the light from the necessity of its nature, and not any free action on the part of God. What is thus given off as a copy from original perfection, departs more and more from its source, and gradually degenerates, which was thought to account for the origin of evil. This doctrine came from the East, and pervades the Indian mythology, the tem of Zoroaster, and the Neo-Platonic philosophy of Alexandria. In Christian theology, the idea of emanation has been applied to explain the relation among the persons of the Trinity.

sys

EMANCHÉ. See MANCHE. EMANCIPATION. See SLAVERY. EMANCIPATION, in the Roman law, was the act by which the Patria Potestas (q. v.), or paternal authority, was dissolved in the lifetime of the father. It took place in the form of a sale (mancipatio) by the father of the son to a third party, who manumitted him. The Twelve Tables required that this ceremony should be gone through three times, and it was only after the third sale that the son became sui juris under his own law. In general, the son

was at last resold to the father, who manumitted him, and thus acquired the rights of a Patron (q. v.), which would otherwise have belonged to the alien purchaser who finally manumitted him. In the case of daughters and grandchildren, one sale was suffi cient. If the child died intestate, or if he required a tutor or curator, the father's rights as patron came into play; but if the father died intestate, the son took nothing, because he was out of his family. But this rigour of the old law was modified by the prætor's edict, which placed all the children on the same footing. In the law of Scotland, emancipation is called Foresfamiliation (q. v.). The only case in which the term is employed in England is with reference to poor-law settlements. See SETTLE MENT, POOR.

EMANCIPATION, CATHOLIC. See ROMAN

CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION.

EMA'NÜEL I., king of Portugal, styled THE GREAT, and sometimes, likewise, THE FORTUNATE, was born on the 3d May 1469, and succeeded John II. in 1495. Before his accession to the throne, he bore the title of Duke of Beja. On his accession, he prepared the code of laws which bears his name, and rendered himself remarkable by his zeal and exertions in the cause of education, by his active piety, and by his predilection for the society of artists and scholars. Through his exertions, Portugal became the first naval power of Europe, and the centre of the commerce of the world. He despatched Vasco de Gama to sail round the Cape of Good Hope, and discover the passage to India. Cabral was commissioned by him to prosecute the discoveries of Vasco de Gama still further, and Corte Real to sail along the coasts of North

he opened a communication with Persia, Ethiopia, and, in 1517, with China. At his death, 13th December 1521, Portugal was in possession of a large fleet, strong fortresses, well-furnished arsenals, a warlike army, a flourishing trade and commerce, and extensive colonies. His reign has been termed the golden age of Portugal. E. was thrice married : first to Isabella, the daughter of Ferdinand; afterwards to Mary of Castile, her sister (by whom he had two children, John and Isabella, the former of whom succeeded him on the throne); and thirdly, to Eleanore of Austria, sister of Charles V. EMA'RGINATE. See LEAVES.

E'MBA, a river of Turkistan, in the Kirghiz territory, rises at the western base of the Muehajar or Mongojar Mountains, and flowing in a south-west direction, enters the Caspian Sea after a course of about 300 miles.

EMBALMING, the art of preserving the body after death, invented by the Egyptians, whose prepared bodies are known by the name of mummies, and are called in the hieroglyphs sahu, and by St Augustine gabbaroe. This art seems to have derived its origin from the idea, that the preservation of the body was necessary for the return of the soul to the human form after it had completed its cycle of existence of three or ten thousand years. Physical and sanitary reasons may also have induced the ancient Egyptians; and the legend of Osiris, whose body, destroyed by Typhon, was found by Isis, sanction to the rite, all deceased persons being and embalmed by his son Anubis, gave a religious supposed to be embalmed after the model of Osiris in the abuton of Phila. The art appears as old as 2000 B. C., at least the bodies of Cheops, Mycerinus, and others of the age of the 4th dynasty having been embalmed. One of the earliest recorded

Egyptian Mummy.

embalmments on record is that of the patriarch Jacob; and the body of Joseph was thus prepared, and transported out of Egypt. The process has been described by Herodotus and Diodorus; but their accounts can only refer to their own age, and are only partially confirmed by an examination of the mummies. The following seems to have been the usual rule observed after death. The relations of the deceased went through the city chanting a wail for the dead. The corpse of a male was at once committed into the charge of the undertakers; if a female, it was retained at home till decomposition had begun. The paraschistes, or flank-inciser of the district, a person of low class, whose establishment was situated in the cemeteries or suburbs, conveyed the corpse home. A scribe marked with a reed-pen a line on the left side beneath the ribs, dewn which line the paraschistes made a deep incision with a rude knife or Ethiopian stone, probably flint. He was then pelted by those around with stones, and pursued with curses. Another kind of embalmer, the taricheutes, or preparer, then proceeded to remove the entrails and lungs, with the exception of the heart and kidneys. The brain was extracted by another taricheutes, by a crooked instrument, through the nose. All this having been effected, the body was ready for the salts and spices

necessary for its preservation, and the future operations depended upon the sum to be expended on the task. When Herodotus visited Egypt, three methods prevailed: the first, accessible only to the wealthy, consisted in passing peculiar drugs through the nostrils into the cavities of the skull, rinsing the belly in palm-wine, and filling it with resins, cassia, and other substances, and stitching up the incision in the left flank. The mummy was then steeped in natron for seventy days, and wrapped up in linen, cemented by gums, and set upright in a wooden coffin against the walls of the house or tomb. This process cost a silver talent, which, considering the relative value of ancient money at one-third of that at present, would amount to about £725. The second process consisted in removing the brain, as before, but only injecting the viscera with kedrion, or cedar oil, and soaking the corpse in a solution of natron for seventy days, which brought away or destroyed the viscera and soft portions, leaving only the skin and bones. The expense was a mina, relatively worth about £243. The third process, in use for the poorer classes, washed the corpse in myrrh, and salted it for seventy days. The expense was a trifle, not mentioned. When thus prepared, the bodies were ready for sepulture, but were often kept some time before being buried-often at home-and even produced at festive entertainments, to recall to the guests the transient lot of humanity. When buried, they were sent to the cholchyta, a higher class than the taricheute, who had charge of the tombs, the mummies, and the masses for the dead. All classes were embalmed, even malefactors; and those who were drowned in the Nile or killed by crocodiles received an embalmment from the city nearest to which the accident occurred. As the art, however, existed for many centuries, it may be easily conceived that mummies were preserved by very different means, and quite distinct from those described by classical authors, some having been found merely dried in the sand; others salted by natron, or boiled in resins and bitumen, with or without the flank incision, having the brains removed through the eyes or base of the cranium, with the viscera returned into the body, placed upon it, or deposited in jars in shapes of the genii of the dead, the skin partially gilded, the flank incision covered with a tin plate, the fingers cased in silver, the eyes removed, and replaced. The mummies are generally wrapped in linen bandages, and placed in costly coffins. See SARCOPHAGUS. The sacred animals were also mummied, but by simpler processes than men. Mummies, it may be observed in passing, were used in the 15th and 16th centuries of the Christian era for drugs and other medical purposes, and nostrums against diseases, and a peculiar brown colour, used as the background of pictures, was obtained from the bitumen. The Ethiopians used similar means to preserve the dead, and the successful nature of embalming may be judged from the numerous mummies in the different museums of Europe. Other less successful means were used by nations of antiquity to embalm. The Persians employed wax; the Assyrians, honey; the Jews embalmed their monarchs with spices, with which the body of our Lord was also anointed; Alexander the Great was preserved in wax and honey, and some Roman bodies have been found thus embalmed. The Guanches, or ancient inhabitants of the Canary Isles, used an elaborate process like the Egyptian; and desiccated bodies, preserved by atmospheric or other circumstances for centuries, have been found in France, Sicily, England, and America, especially in Central America and Peru. The art of embalming was probably never lost in Europe; and De Bils,

Ruysch, Swammerdam, and Clauderus boast of great success in the art. There was a celebrated cabinet of M. De Rasière in 1727. containing prepared bodies; and the mode of embalming princes and others, by prepared balms and other substances, is detailed by Penicher, consisting in the removal and separate embalmment of the heart and viscera, and removing the brain, and introducing the preparations by incisions all over the body. Dr Hunter injected essential oils through the principal arteries into the body. Boudet, during the French Empire, embalmed the bodies of the senators with camphor, balsam of Peru, Jews' pitch, tan and salt; but the discovery of Chaussier of the preservative power of corrosive sublimate, by which animal matter becomes rigid, hard, and grayish, introduced a new means of embalming by Beclard and Larrey; but owing to the desiccation, the features do not retain their shape. The discovery of the preservative power of a mixture of equal parts of acetate and chloride of alumina, or of sulphate of alumina, by Gannal in 1834, and of that of arsenic by Tranchini, and of pyroxilic spirits by Babington and Rees in 1839, and of the antiseptic nature of chloride of zinc, have led to the application of these salts to the embalming or preparation of bodies required to be preserved for a limited time; but there is no reason to believe that bodies so preserved will last as long as Egyptian mummies. See Pettigrew, History of Mummies (4to, Lond. 1834); Gannal, Traité d'Embaumement (Svo, Paris, 1838), translated by Harlan (Svo, Philadelph. 1840); Magnus, Das Einbalsimiren der Leichen (8vo, Braunsch. 1839).

EMBANKMENT, EA'RTHWORK. Embank ments, in Engineering, are masses of earth, rock, or other materials artificially formed, and rising above the natural surface of the ground. They are chiefly formed either (1) to carry railways, common roads, canals, &c., over depressions of the country; or (2) for hydraulic purposes, such as the formation of reservoirs for storing water; or as defences against the overflowing of rivers, the encroachments of the sea, of lakes, &c.

In the formation of canals, railways, and other roads, embankment and excavation go hand in hand, and, under the name of EARTHWORK, form-espe cially in modern times, and since the development of the railway system-a vast branch of industry, giving employment to many thousands of labourers, known in England as 'navvies.' The earthworks executed within the last quarter of a century in Great Britain alone have cost many millions of pounds.

In planning works of the kind alluded to, engineers follow, as much as possible, the principle of making the cuttings or excavations and the embankments balance; i. e., of making the earth, &c., taken from the cuttings be sufficient for the formation of the embankments. See RAILWAYS (ENGINEERING). In proceeding to the actual construction of a railway embankment, e. g., a beginning is made at the points where the level of the formation meets the surface of the ground; and on each side of these points the cutting is taken out, and the embankment formed by men using pick, shovel, and barrow, so that a roadway is formed for a distance of from 50 to 100 yards. When the 'lead,' or the distance between the face of the cutting and the tip-head,' or end of the embankment, is greater than this, it is no longer economical to use the barrow. To continue the cutting and embankment, several methods may be employed; the most common are, dobbin carts; small wagons run upon light rails at a narrow gauge, and drawn by men or horses; ordinary earth-wagons drawn by horses, and occasionally by a locomotive;